Deciding_VVG what_DDQ to_TO write_VVI about_II ,_, and_CC getting_VVG started_VVN 1.1_MC THE_AT PURPOSE_NN1 OF_IO WRITING_VVG ESSAYS_NN2 As_CSA prescribed_JJ coursework_NN1 ,_, essays_NN2 in_II literary_JJ studies_NN2 generally_RR require_VV0 you_PPY to_TO carry_VVI out_RP two_MC related_JJ tasks_NN2 ._. 
First_MD ,_, they_PPHS2 invite_VV0 you_PPY to_TO show_VVI that_CST you_PPY are_VBR familiar_JJ with_IW the_AT basic_JJ ,_, raw_JJ material_NN1 which_DDQ makes_VVZ up_RP the_AT subject_NN1 whether_CSW this_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 work_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 series_NN of_IO works_NN ,_, a_AT1 literary_JJ theory_NN1 ,_, the_AT historical_JJ context_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 author_NN1 or_CC what_DDQ critics_NN2 have_VH0 said_VVN about_II something_PN1 ._. 
Secondly_RR ,_, they_PPHS2 invite_VV0 you_PPY to_TO show_VVI that_CST you_PPY can_VM manipulate_VVI that_DD1 basic_JJ ,_, raw_JJ material_NN1 to_TO argue_VVI a_AT1 case_NN1 ,_, in_II ways_NN2 consistent_JJ with_IW established_JJ frameworks_NN2 of_IO literary-critical_JJ debate_NN1 ._. 
Many_DA2 students_NN2 '_GE essays_NN2 demonstrate_VV0 that_CST their_APPGE writers_NN2 know_VV0 the_AT relevant_JJ material_NN1 ;_; however_RR ,_, the_AT essays_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX demonstrate_VVI this_DD1 knowledge_NN1 within_II a_AT1 coherent_JJ or_CC developing_JJ argument_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA essays_NN2 are_VBR usually_RR judged_VVN to_TO be_VBI lacking_VVG a_AT1 necessary_JJ dimension_NN1 for_IF achieving_VVG high_JJ marks_NN2 ._. 
So_RR the_AT second_MD task_NN1 of_IO essay-writing_NN1 arguing_VVG a_AT1 case_NN1 is_VBZ important_JJ ._. 
But_CCB what_DDQ does_VDZ &quot;_" arguing_VVG a_AT1 case_NN1 &quot;_" mean_VV0 for_IF a_AT1 literary_JJ studies_NN2 essay_NN1 ?_? 
Much_DA1 of_IO this_DD1 book_NN1 is_VBZ devoted_JJ to_II showing_VVG in_II detail_NN1 what_DDQ &quot;_" arguing_VVG a_AT1 case_NN1 &quot;_" means_VVZ in_II literary_JJ studies_NN2 ;_; and_CC the_AT notion_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" argument_NN1 &quot;_" will_VM recur_VVI in_II the_AT chapters_NN2 which_DDQ follow_VV0 ._. 
Here_RL we_PPIS2 need_VV0 only_RR to_TO establish_VVI a_AT1 rough_JJ and_CC preliminary_JJ guide_NN1 ._. 
Arguing_VVG a_AT1 case_NN1 involves_VVZ the_AT following_JJ four_MC stages_NN2 :_: identifying_VVG a_AT1 problem_NN1 or_CC issue_NN1 in_II a_AT1 given_JJ area_NN1 ;_; establishing_VVG competing_JJ points_NN2 of_IO view_NN1 associated_VVN with_IW the_AT issue_NN1 identified_VVN ;_; presenting_VVG evidence_NN1 in_II31 support_II32 of_II33 and_CC against_II various_JJ positions_NN2 which_DDQ might_VM be_VBI taken_VVN up_RP with_II31 regard_II32 to_II33 the_AT issue_NN1 ;_; reaching_VVG a_AT1 conclusion_NN1 consistent_JJ with_IW the_AT evidence_NN1 and_CC arguments_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 presented_VVN ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT fundamental_JJ skills_NN2 of_IO problem-identification_NN1 ,_, analysis_NN1 and_CC debate_NN1 which_DDQ are_VBR usually_RR perceived_VVN by_II examiners_NN2 and_CC potential_JJ employers_NN2 as_II the_AT main_JJ achievement_NN1 of_IO literary_JJ studies_NN2 ._. 
The_AT persuasive_JJ and_CC analytic_JJ skills_NN2 you_PPY develop_VV0 are_VBR applied_VVN during_II your_APPGE course_NN1 to_II literary_JJ works_NN and_CC issues_NN2 ;_; but_CCB they_PPHS2 have_VH0 the_AT additional_JJ value_NN1 that_CST they_PPHS2 are_VBR potentially_RR transferable_JJ to_II other_JJ problems_NN2 and_CC circumstances_NN2 ._. 
Alongside_II the_AT development_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 skills_NN2 ,_, the_AT subject_NN1 matter_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essays_NN2 offers_VVZ an_AT1 additional_JJ benefit_NN1 ._. 
Because_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ concerned_JJ with_IW questions_NN2 of_IO meaning_NN1 ,_, social_JJ behaviour_NN1 and_CC structure_NN1 ,_, and_CC problems_NN2 of_IO cultural_JJ value_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 directs_VVZ you_PPY not_XX only_RR towards_II a_AT1 wide_JJ range_NN1 of_IO examples_NN2 of_IO writing_NN1 but_CCB also_RR towards_II a_AT1 greater_JJR awareness_NN1 of_IO moral_JJ and_CC social_JJ questions_NN2 underlying_VVG the_AT techniques_NN2 through_II which_DDQ analysis_NN1 and_CC persuasion_NN1 are_VBR achieved_VVN ._. 
Once_RR this_DD1 basic_JJ way_NN1 of_IO tackling_VVG literary_JJ studies_NN2 is_VBZ clear_JJ ,_, many_DA2 of_IO the_AT more_RGR specific_JJ problems_NN2 facing_VVG you_PPY as_CSA you_PPY answer_VV0 an_AT1 exam_NN1 question_NN1 or_CC devise_VV0 an_AT1 essay_NN1 topic_NN1 will_VM begin_VVI to_TO fall_VVI into_II place_NN1 ._. 
With_IW the_AT larger_JJR objectives_NN2 slightly_RR clearer_JJR ,_, what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 to_TO do_VDI is_VBZ to_TO work_VVI out_RP how_RRQ these_DD2 are_VBR achievable_JJ in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT wide_JJ array_NN1 of_IO topics_NN2 presented_VVN to_II you_PPY ,_, or_CC in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 possible_JJ topics_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR invited_VVN to_TO define_VVI for_IF yourself._NNU 1.2_MC WHAT_DDQ SORTS_NN2 OF_IO TOPICS_NN2 YOU_PPY MIGHT_VM CHOOSE_VVI In_II most_DAT cases_NN2 ,_, when_CS you_PPY write_VV0 an_AT1 essay_NN1 you_PPY largely_RR decide_VV0 for_IF yourself_PPX1 what_DDQ to_TO write_VVI about_II ._. 
Even_RR where_CS you_PPY have_VH0 to_TO answer_VVI set_NN1 questions_NN2 as_CSA in_II an_AT1 exam_NN1 a_AT1 choice_NN1 between_II alternatives_NN2 usually_RR has_VHZ to_TO be_VBI made_VVN ;_; and_CC not_XX only_RR do_VD0 you_PPY have_VHI to_TO pick_VVI a_AT1 particular_JJ question_NN1 to_TO answer_VVI ,_, but_CCB you_PPY also_RR have_VH0 to_TO decide_VVI exactly_RR what_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ that_CST the_AT question_NN1 is_VBZ asking_VVG you_PPY to_TO do_VDI ._. 
In_II deciding_VVG what_DDQ a_AT1 question_NN1 involves_VVZ ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 first_MD to_TO identify_VVI where_RRQ it_PPH1 fits_VVZ into_II the_AT range_NN1 of_IO ESSAY_NN1 GENRES_NN2 (_( or_CC &quot;_" essay_NN1 idioms_NN2 &quot;_" )_) which_DDQ are_VBR defined_VVN by_II the_AT conventions_NN2 of_IO literary_JJ studies_NN2 as_II a_AT1 discipline_NN1 ._. 
Once_CS you_PPY can_VM identify_VVI where_RRQ it_PPH1 fits_VVZ ,_, you_PPY have_VH0 a_AT1 general_JJ framework_NN1 in_II which_DDQ to_TO tackle_VVI it_PPH1 or_CC which_DDQ you_PPY can_VM challenge_VVI if_CSW you_PPY wish_VV0 to_TO ._. 
We_PPIS2 begin_VV0 this_DD1 chapter_NN1 ,_, accordingly_RR ,_, by_II looking_VVG at_II the_AT different_JJ types_NN2 of_IO literary_JJ essay_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO write_VVI ,_, considering_VVG first_MD the_AT variety_NN1 of_IO focus_NN1 they_PPHS2 give_VV0 to_II their_APPGE subject_NN1 matter_NN1 and_CC the_AT different_JJ modes_NN2 of_IO argument_NN1 they_PPHS2 adopt_VV0 ._. 
A_AT1 literature_NN1 essay_NN1 always_RR has_VHZ a_AT1 focus_NN1 for_IF its_APPGE subject_NN1 matter_NN1 (_( e.g._REX on_II the_AT novels_NN2 of_IO Angela_NP1 Carter_NP1 ,_, the_AT role_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" fool_NN1 &quot;_" characters_NN2 in_II drama_NN1 ,_, or_CC the_AT origins_NN2 of_IO free_JJ verse_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 also_RR uses_VVZ a_AT1 particular_JJ mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 (_( e.g._REX stylistic_JJ analysis_NN1 ,_, contrast_NN1 and_CC comparison_NN1 ,_, or_CC historical_JJ contextualisation_NN1 )_) ._. 
To_TO begin_VVI with_IW ,_, then_RT ,_, we_PPIS2 need_VV0 to_TO identify_VVI the_AT different_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO focus_NN1 and_CC modes_NN2 of_IO argument_NN1 that_CST are_VBR possible_JJ ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY can_VM gain_VVI a_AT1 general_JJ sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT elements_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR combined_VVN together_RL in_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 in_II literary_JJ studies._NNU focus_NN1 (_( i_ZZ1 )_) :_: Authors_NN2 examples_NN2 &quot;_" The_AT life_NN1 and_CC works_NN of_IO Edgar_NP1 Allen_NP1 Poe_NP1 &quot;_" ;_; &quot;_" women_NN2 Romantic_JJ poets_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
focus_VV0 (_( ii_MC )_) :_: Texts_NN2 examples_NN2 Coleridge_NP1 's_GE &quot;_" Kubla_NP1 Khan_NNA &quot;_" ;_; Ralph_NP1 Ellison_NP1 's_GE Invisible_JJ Man_NN1 ;_; poems_NN2 by_II Sylvia_NP1 Plath._NP1 focus_NN1 (_( iii_MC )_) :_: Generic_JJ groupings_NN2 of_IO texts_NN2 examples_NN2 The_AT sonnet_NN1 ;_; eighteenth-century_JJ pastoral_JJ poetry_NN1 ;_; kitchen-sink_JJ drama._NNU focus_NN1 (_( iv_MC )_) :_: Historical_JJ issues_NN2 relating_VVG to_II a_AT1 selected_JJ text_NN1 or_CC group_NN1 of_IO texts_NN2 :_: examples_NN2 The_AT specifically_RR nineteenth-century_JJ idea_NN1 of_IO beauty_NN1 in_II the_AT nineteenth-century_JJ novel_NN1 ;_; developments_NN2 in_II the_AT theatre_NN1 immediately_RR before_II the_AT English_JJ Civil_JJ War_NN1 ;_; representations_NN2 of_IO industrial_JJ life_NN1 in_II early_JJ twentieth-century_JJ novels._NNU focus_NN1 (_( v_ZZ1 )_) :_: Theoretical_JJ issues_NN2 relating_VVG to_II literary_JJ study_NN1 :_: examples_NN2 Comparison_NN1 of_IO post-structuralist_JJ approaches_NN2 to_II the_AT lyric_JJ poem_NN1 ;_; the_AT mental_JJ processes_NN2 involved_JJ in_II construing_VVG a_AT1 metaphor_NN1 ;_; why_RRQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO have_VHI manipulations_NN2 of_IO point-of-view_NN1 in_II narrative_NN1 ._. 
Consider_VV0 now_RT the_AT various_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO argument_NN1 which_DDQ can_VM be_VBI used_VVN in_II approaching_VVG these_DD2 points_NN2 of_IO focus_NN1 in_II your_APPGE material_NN1 and_CC making_VVG something_PN1 new_JJ and_CC interesting_JJ from_II them_PPHO2 :_: mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 (_( a_ZZ1 )_) :_: Revalue_VV0 a_AT1 reputation_NN1 (_( or_CC assess_VV0 relative_JJ achievement_NN1 )_) ;_; example_NN1 An_AT1 extended_JJ essay_NN1 which_DDQ argues_VVZ that_CST Josephine_NP1 Tey_NP1 is_VBZ a_AT1 major_JJ Scottish_JJ writer_NN1 ,_, and_CC that_CST she_PPHS1 has_VHZ been_VBN neglected_VVN because_CS she_PPHS1 wrote_VVD detective_NN1 fiction._NNU mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 (_( b_ZZ1 )_) :_: Analyse_VV0 style_NN1 :_: comment_VV0 on_II aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT language_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 text._NNU example_NN1 An_AT1 essay_NN1 pointing_VVG out_RP that_CST Shakespeare_NP1 's_GE first_MD sonnet_NN1 ends_VVZ with_IW a_AT1 comma_NN1 in_II the_AT first_MD printed_JJ edition_NN1 and_CC arguing_VVG that_CST this_DD1 is_VBZ because_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT first_MD part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 larger_JJR poem_NN1 including_II also_RR the_AT second_MD sonnet._NNU mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 (_( c_ZZ1 )_) :_: Relate_VV0 a_AT1 text_NN1 to_II the_AT historical_JJ circumstances_NN2 which_DDQ produced_VVD it_PPH1 ,_, or_CC in_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ read._NNU example_NN1 A_ZZ1 dissertation_NN1 which_DDQ looks_VVZ at_II the_AT relation_NN1 between_II the_AT spread_NN1 of_IO tourism_NN1 in_II the_AT countryside_NN1 in_II the_AT eighteenth_MD century_NNT1 and_CC the_AT development_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 new_JJ style_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" countryside_NN1 &quot;_" poetry_NN1 as_CSA exemplified_VVN in_II Wordsworth_NP1 and_CC Coleridge_NP1 's_GE Lyrical_JJ Ballads_NN2 published_VVN near_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 century._NNU mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 (_( d_ZZ1 )_) :_: Place_VV0 a_AT1 text_NN1 in_II a_AT1 literary_JJ or_CC aesthetic_JJ context_NN1 (_( e.g._REX in_II a_AT1 tradition_NN1 ,_, in_II the_AT emergence_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 new_JJ form_NN1 or_CC style_NN1 )_) ._. 
example_NN1 A_ZZ1 thesis_NN1 arguing_VVG that_CST Robert_NP1 Louis_NP1 Stevenson_NP1 should_VM be_VBI understood_VVN as_II an_AT1 early_JJ example_NN1 of_IO twentieth-century_JJ Modernism_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 as_II a_AT1 late_JJ example_NN1 of_IO nineteenth-century_JJ Realism._NP1 mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 (_( e_ZZ1 )_) :_: Describe_VV0 or_CC interpret_VV0 (_( or_CC reinterpret_NN1 )_) a_AT1 text_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, you_PPY could_VM interpret_VVI the_AT meanings_NN2 of_IO events_NN2 in_II a_AT1 narrative_NN1 ,_, starting_VVG with_IW a_AT1 description_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ happens_VVZ at_II an_AT1 apparently_RR realistic_JJ level_NN1 ,_, then_RT interpreting_VVG the_AT events_NN2 as_CSA having_VHG an_AT1 alternative_NN1 ,_, symbolic_JJ meaning_NN1 ._. 
Description_NN1 and/or_CC interpretation_NN1 includes_VVZ some_DD of_IO the_AT kinds_NN2 of_IO activity_NN1 involved_JJ in_II an_AT1 exercise_NN1 called_VVN &quot;_" Practical_JJ Criticism_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, which_DDQ entails_VVZ commenting_VVG on_II prose_NN1 passages_NN2 and_CC poems._NNU example_NN1 An_AT1 essay_NN1 which_DDQ describes_VVZ the_AT narrative_NN1 of_IO Alasdair_NP1 Gray_NP1 's_GE novel_JJ Lanark_NP1 and_CC interprets_VVZ it_PPH1 as_II a_AT1 symbolic_JJ representation_NN1 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 of_IO contemporary_JJ Scotland._NP1 mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 (_( f_ZZ1 )_) :_: Take_VV0 sides_NN2 in_II an_AT1 ongoing_JJ critical_JJ argument_NN1 between_II differing_JJ viewpoints_NN2 ._. 
Summarise_VV0 the_AT different_JJ cases_NN2 made_VVN in_II a_AT1 controversy_NN1 ,_, then_RT conclude_VV0 by_II taking_VVG one_MC1 side_NN1 or_CC another_DD1 ._. 
Since_CS critical_JJ controversies_NN2 can_VM surround_VVI virtually_RR any_DD aspect_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 or_CC movement_NN1 ,_, essays_NN2 along_II these_DD2 lines_NN2 can_VM take_VVI many_DA2 forms._NNU example_NN1 A_ZZ1 thesis_NN1 which_DDQ investigates_VVZ made-up_JJ words_NN2 (_( which_DDQ resemble_VV0 slips_NN2 of_IO the_AT tongue_NN1 )_) in_II Joyce_NP1 's_GE Finnegans_NP2 Wake_VV0 ,_, compares_VVZ literary_JJ theoretical_JJ approaches_NN2 with_IW experimental_JJ psychological_JJ approaches_NN2 ,_, and_CC concludes_VVZ that_CST the_AT psychological_JJ approaches_NN2 undermine_VV0 the_AT validity_NN1 of_IO the_AT literary_JJ theoretical_JJ approaches._NNU mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 (_( g_ZZ1 )_) :_: Exemplify_VV0 theories_NN2 ,_, terms_NN2 or_CC approaches_NN2 ,_, or_CC use_VV0 a_AT1 classificatory_JJ system_NN1 to_TO describe_VVI a_AT1 text_NN1 (_( usually_RR in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO reflect_VVI back_RP on_II how_RGQ suitable_JJ or_CC effective_JJ the_AT descriptive_JJ system_NN1 is_VBZ )_) ._. 
example_NN1 An_AT1 essay_NN1 showing_VVG that_CST the_AT linguistic_JJ theory_NN1 of_IO Conversational_JJ Analysis_NN1 can_VM help_VVI us_PPIO2 understand_VVI how_RRQ characters_NN2 in_II Conrad_NP1 's_GE novels_NN2 control_VV0 each_PPX221 other_PPX222 through_II the_AT ways_NN2 they_PPHS2 interact_VV0 in_II speech_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 simple_JJ combination_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 selected_JJ focus_NN1 with_IW one_MC1 of_IO the_AT modes_NN2 of_IO argument_NN1 outlined_VVN above_RL would_VM be_VBI an_AT1 essay_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 focus_NN1 on_II Ralph_NP1 Ellison_NP1 's_GE Invisible_JJ Man_NN1 &lsqb;_( focus_NN1 (_( ii_MC )_) &rsqb;_) ,_, which_DDQ argues_VVZ that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ underrated_VVN as_II a_AT1 novel_NN1 and_CC indicates_VVZ why_RRQ it_PPH1 should_VM be_VBI seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 greater_JJR achievement_NN1 &lsqb;_( mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 (_( a_ZZ1 )_) &rsqb;_) ._. 
More_DAR than_CSN one_MC1 focus_NN1 can_VM be_VBI adopted_VVN in_II any_DD given_JJ essay_NN1 ,_, and_CC different_JJ modes_NN2 of_IO argument_NN1 can_VM be_VBI combined_VVN ;_; the_AT evaluation_NN1 of_IO Invisible_JJ Man_NN1 could_VM involve_VVI a_AT1 stylistic_JJ argument_NN1 ,_, so_RR combining_VVG mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 (_( a_ZZ1 )_) and_CC mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 (_( b_ZZ1 )_) ._. 
But_CCB while_CS a_AT1 single_JJ essay_NN1 might_VM draw_VVI in_II this_DD1 way_NN1 on_II more_DAR than_CSN one_MC1 perspective_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ to_TO establish_VVI which_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT primary_NN1 or_CC organising_VVG mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 and_CC what_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT primary_JJ focus_NN1 around_II which_DDQ an_AT1 essay_NN1 is_VBZ based_VVN ._. 
Otherwise_RR you_PPY may_VM obscure_VVI the_AT development_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 by_II failing_VVG to_TO distinguish_VVI its_APPGE overall_JJ direction_NN1 ._. 
Many_DA2 essays_NN2 suffer_VV0 from_II exactly_RR this_DD1 problem_NN1 :_: they_PPHS2 lack_VV0 a_AT1 clear_JJ sense_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ the_AT main_JJ issues_NN2 are_VBR which_DDQ are_VBR being_VBG addressed_VVN ._. 
Other_JJ essays_NN2 are_VBR damaged_VVN by_II what_DDQ appears_VVZ to_TO be_VBI an_AT1 opposite_JJ problem_NN1 ,_, but_CCB is_VBZ actually_RR a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO the_AT same_DA lack_NN1 of_IO structure_NN1 :_: they_PPHS2 read_VV0 as_CS21 if_CS22 they_PPHS2 are_VBR trying_VVG to_TO solve_VVI two_MC or_CC more_DAR problems_NN2 at_RR21 once_RR22 ._. 
RESPONDING_VVG TO_TO SET_VVI QUESTIONS_NN2 If_CS you_PPY have_VH0 to_TO devise_VVI your_APPGE own_DA topic_NN1 ,_, you_PPY can_VM do_VDI so_RR by_II selecting_VVG and_CC combining_VVG from_II the_AT lists_NN2 of_IO different_JJ approaches_NN2 above_RL ._. 
But_CCB even_CS21 when_CS22 you_PPY are_VBR constrained_VVN by_II having_VHG to_TO answer_VVI a_AT1 question_NN1 set_VVN for_IF you_PPY ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ useful_JJ to_TO bear_VVI in_II mind_NN1 the_AT range_NN1 of_IO possible_JJ essay_NN1 genres_NN2 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY can_VM decide_VVI exactly_RR which_DDQ combination_NN1 of_IO focus_NN1 and_CC mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR required_VVN to_TO adopt_VVI ._. 
Finding_VVG an_AT1 appropriate_JJ form_NN1 in_II which_DDQ to_TO present_VVI your_APPGE argument_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 major_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT process_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG an_AT1 essay_NN1 ,_, and_CC our_APPGE aim_NN1 in_II these_DD2 sections_NN2 is_VBZ to_TO help_VVI you_PPY develop_VVI strategies_NN2 for_IF making_VVG sure_JJ that_CST your_APPGE essay_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 directed_JJ and_CC coherent_JJ structure_NN1 ._. 
Coursework_NN1 and_CC examination_NN1 questions_NN2 are_VBR an_AT1 idiom_NN1 in_II themselves_PPX2 ._. 
The_AT idiom_NN1 is_VBZ worth_II learning_VVG to_TO understand_VVI in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO develop_VVI a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO how_RRQ you_PPY should_VM respond_VVI to_II the_AT (_( often_RR hidden_VVN )_) questions_NN2 inside_II an_AT1 examination_NN1 or_CC coursework_NN1 question_NN1 ._. 
Here_RL are_VBR some_DD words_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR commonly_RR used_VVN in_II essay_NN1 and_CC exam_NN1 questions_NN2 ,_, grouped_VVN according_II21 to_II22 the_AT basic_JJ types_NN2 of_IO writing_NN1 which_DDQ they_PPHS2 might_VM be_VBI asking_VVG you_PPY to_TO do_VDI ._. 
In_II this_DD1 book_NN1 we_PPIS2 will_VM look_VVI at_II the_AT kinds_NN2 of_IO things_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 to_TO do_VDI to_TO respond_VVI to_II each_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO question_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ partly_RR a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG appropriate_JJ sentences_NN2 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY can_VM distinguish_VVI your_APPGE point_NN1 of_IO view_NN1 in_II debate_NN1 from_II someone_PN1 else_RR 's_GE ._. 
And_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ partly_RR a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO organising_VVG paragraphs_NN2 how_RRQ ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, to_TO organise_VVI a_AT1 comparison_NN1 ._. 
And_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ partly_RR a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO knowing_VVG where_RRQ to_TO find_VVI help_NN1 :_: how_RRQ to_TO find_VVI examples_NN2 and_CC how_RRQ to_TO work_VVI out_RP all_DB the_AT possibilities_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 classification_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT meantime_NNT1 ,_, note_VV0 the_AT following_JJ features_NN2 of_IO the_AT use_NN1 of_IO the_AT words_NN2 listed_VVN above_RL ._. 
The_AT term_NN1 &quot;_" discuss_VV0 &quot;_" invites_VVZ debate_NN1 ,_, where_CS debate_NN1 means_VVZ reasoned_JJ presentation_NN1 of_IO arguments_NN2 for_IF and_CC against_II a_AT1 proposition_NN1 ,_, with_IW a_AT1 conclusion_NN1 no_RGQV31 matter_RGQV32 how_RGQV33 qualified_JJ or_CC tentative_JJ reached_VVN at_II the_AT end_NN1 ._. 
Words_NN2 like_VV0 &quot;_" explain_VV0 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" justify_VV0 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" assess_VV0 &quot;_" are_VBR used_VVN to_TO focus_VVI your_APPGE attention_NN1 on_II causation_NN1 and_CC evidence_NN1 ;_; you_PPY should_VM not_XX only_RR describe_VVI what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 read_VVN but_CCB also_RR offer_VV0 an_AT1 analysis_NN1 of_IO why_RRQ you_PPY take_VV0 the_AT view_NN1 of_IO it_PPH1 you_PPY do_VD0 ._. 
&quot;_" Give_VV0 examples_NN2 &quot;_" (_( or_CC the_AT related_JJ ,_, &quot;_" with_II31 reference_II32 to_II33 not_XX less_DAR than_CSN two_MC texts_NN2 ..._... &quot;_" )_) invites_VVZ you_PPY to_TO present_VVI concrete_JJ illustration_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ should_VM generally_RR include_VVI quotation_NN1 and_CC paraphrase_NN1 (_( of_IO episodes_NN2 or_CC incidents_NN2 from_II the_AT text_NN1 )_) to_TO support_VVI the_AT points_NN2 you_PPY make_VV0 ._. 
We_PPIS2 can_VM accordingly_RR make_VVI a_AT1 general_JJ summary_NN1 of_IO the_AT tasks_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR being_VBG invited_VVN to_TO perform_VVI in_II31 response_II32 to_II33 essay_NN1 questions_NN2 ._. 
You_PPY are_VBR to_TO discuss_VVI a_AT1 proposition_NN1 ,_, offering_VVG and_CC evaluating_VVG arguments_NN2 with_IW appropriate_JJ illustration_NN1 on_II different_JJ sides_NN2 ;_; the_AT arguments_NN2 should_VM lead_VVI towards_II a_AT1 conclusion_NN1 which_DDQ (_( 1_MC1 )_) follows_VVZ the_AT arguments_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 offered_VVN ,_, and_CC (_( 2_MC )_) matches_VVZ the_AT balance_NN1 of_IO possibilities_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY argued_VVD for_IF in_II your_APPGE essay._NNU 1.4_MC EXAM_NN1 QUESTIONS_NN2 It_PPH1 is_VBZ helpful_JJ to_TO bear_VVI in_II mind_NN1 these_DD2 recurrent_JJ instruction_NN1 words_NN2 (_( &quot;_" discuss_VV0 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" assess_VV0 &quot;_" ,_, etc._RA )_) as_CSA you_PPY contemplate_VV0 in_II an_AT1 examination_NN1 a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO questions_NN2 that_CST you_PPY have_VH0 to_TO choose_VVI between_RL ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR necessary_JJ to_TO link_VVI up_RP these_DD2 instruction_NN1 words_NN2 with_IW other_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO questions_NN2 ._. 
So_RR in_II this_DD1 section_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 look_VV0 more_RGR closely_RR at_II how_RGQ whole_JJ exam_NN1 questions_NN2 (_( illustrated_VVN here_RL from_II recent_JJ University_NN1 of_IO London_NP1 examination_NN1 papers_NN2 )_) are_VBR structured_VVN ,_, before_II considering_VVG some_DD more_DAR general_JJ exam-room_JJ strategies_NN2 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR several_DA2 different_JJ categories_NN2 of_IO exam_NN1 questions_NN2 :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) Questions_NN2 on_II given_JJ passages_NN2 How_RRQ appropriate_JJ is_VBZ the_AT form/style_NN1 of_IO the_AT following_JJ passage_NN1 ?_? 
By_II what_DDQ means_VVZ ,_, stylistic_JJ and_CC other_JJ ,_, does_VDZ the_AT author_NN1 attempt_VVI to_TO establish_VVI the_AT character_NN1 of_IO the_AT narrator_NN1 in_II the_AT following_JJ passage_NN1 ?_? 
Write_VV0 a_AT1 critical_JJ analysis_NN1 of_IO the_AT following_JJ poem_NN1 ._. 
Diction_NN1 ,_, rhythm_NN1 ,_, rhyme_NN1 and_CC syntax_NN1 may_VM be_VBI of_IO special_JJ interest_NN1 ._. 
Often_RR you_PPY will_VM be_VBI asked_VVN in_II this_DD1 sort_NN1 of_IO question_NN1 to_TO discuss_VVI passages_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 not_XX seen_VVN before_RT ._. 
But_CCB since_CS the_AT examination_NN1 is_VBZ testing_VVG what_DDQ skills_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 developed_VVN over_II time_NNT1 ,_, the_AT passage_NN1 is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI similar_JJ in_II some_DD way_NN1 to_II passages_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 seen_VVN ._. 
Sometimes_RT the_AT similarity_NN1 is_VBZ hinted_VVN at_II in_II the_AT question_NN1 itself_PPX1 ;_; for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, you_PPY may_VM have_VHI looked_VVN at_II another_DD1 passage_NN1 involving_VVG characterisation_NN1 and_CC this_DD1 will_VM guide_VVI you_PPY in_II looking_VVG at_II this_DD1 one_PN1 ._. 
But_CCB while_CS you_PPY will_VM usually_RR be_VBI expected_VVN to_TO remember_VVI other_JJ pieces_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 seen_VVN before_II and_CC how_RRQ you_PPY analysed_VVD them_PPHO2 you_PPY should_VM not_XX discuss_VVI those_DD2 other_JJ passages_NN2 in_II your_APPGE answer_NN1 (_( unless_CS you_PPY are_VBR explicitly_RR instructed_VVN to_II ,_, which_DDQ none_PN of_IO the_AT above_JJ questions_NN2 do_VD0 )_) ._. 
Use_VV0 what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 learned_VVN only_RR as_CSA background_NN1 ,_, or_CC as_II a_AT1 model_NN1 ;_; concentrate_VV0 on_II isolating_VVG suitable_JJ phrases_NN2 or_CC passages_NN2 for_IF comment_NN1 ,_, and_CC on_II drawing_VVG general_JJ observations_NN2 from_II them._NNU (_( b_ZZ1 )_) Questions_NN2 which_DDQ explicitly_RR invite_VV0 debate_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT weighing_NN1 of_IO evidence_NN1 (_( these_DD2 might_VM be_VBI called_VVN &quot;_" to_II what_DDQ extent_NN1 &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" discuss_VV0 &quot;_" questions_NN2 )_) &quot;_" Bakhtin_NP1 's_GE dialogic_JJ reading_NN1 can_VM defuse_VVI scepticism_NN1 about_II the_AT possibility_NN1 of_IO meaning_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Discuss_VV0 ._. 
&quot;_" Feminism_NN1 involves_VVZ both_RR the_AT affirmation_NN1 and_CC the_AT critique_NN1 of_IO female_JJ identity_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Discuss_VV0 ._. 
To_II what_DDQ extent_NN1 should_VM Heaney_NP1 's_GE poetry_NN1 be_VBI described_VVN and_CC assessed_VVN in_II terms_NN2 drawn_VVN from_II his_APPGE own_DA critical_JJ essays_NN2 ?_? 
Even_CS21 if_CS22 the_AT question_NN1 does_VDZ n't_XX specifically_RR warn_VVI you_PPY about_II it_PPH1 ,_, by_II saying_VVG &quot;_" to_II what_DDQ extent_NN1 ..._... &quot;_" ,_, you_PPY should_VM generally_RR find_VVI that_CST the_AT answer_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX at_II one_MC1 end_NN1 or_CC the_AT other_JJ ,_, but_CCB somewhere_RL in_II the_AT middle_NN1 ._. 
And_CC be_VB0 especially_RR careful_JJ with_IW formulations_NN2 of_IO the_AT kind_NN1 illustrated_VVN in_II the_AT examples_NN2 below_RL ;_; do_VD0 not_XX be_VBI misled_VVN by_II a_AT1 direct_JJ interrogative_NN1 the_AT answer_NN1 is_VBZ never_RR just_RR a_AT1 long_JJ version_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" yes_UH &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" no_NN1 &quot;_" :_: &quot;_" Psychoanalytic_JJ criticism_NN1 can_VM merge_VVI with_IW other_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO reading_VVG without_IW supplanting_VVG them_PPHO2 :_: it_PPH1 can_VM underpin_VVI without_IW undermining_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Have_VH0 you_PPY found_VVN this_DD1 to_TO be_VBI so_RR ?_? 
Is_VBZ &quot;_" warm-heartedness_JJ &quot;_" an_AT1 adequate_JJ epitome_NN1 of_IO Dickens_NP1 's_GE social_JJ theory_NN1 ?_? 
Can_VM there_EX be_VBI a_AT1 &quot;_" science_NN1 of_IO the_AT text_NN1 &quot;_" ?_? 
Some_DD writers_NN2 on_II such_DA questions_NN2 unwisely_RR respond_VV0 with_IW aggressive_JJ disagreement_NN1 to_II the_AT proposition_NN1 being_VBG put_VVN ._. 
Unwisely_RR ,_, because_CS the_AT question_NN1 does_VDZ n't_XX usually_RR involve_VVI a_AT1 genuine_JJ opinion_NN1 ,_, but_CCB rather_RG a_AT1 constructed_JJ or_CC quoted_VVD one_PN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ being_VBG used_VVN to_TO provoke_VVI reaction_NN1 ._. 
(_( The_AT examiners_NN2 are_VBR asking_VVG you_PPY to_TO show_VVI that_CST you_PPY have_VH0 a_AT1 view_NN1 and_CC can_VM justify_VVI it_PPH1 ,_, whatever_DDQV it_PPH1 is_VBZ ;_; they_PPHS2 are_VBR not_XX asking_VVG to_TO be_VBI attacked_VVN for_IF holding_VVG the_AT view_NN1 outlined_VVN in_II the_AT question_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ they_PPHS2 probably_RR do_VD0 n't_XX hold_VVI anyway._NNU )_) (_( c_ZZ1 )_) Other_JJ specific_JJ types_NN2 of_IO question_NN1 In_II what_DDQ ways_NN2 can_VM Elizabeth_NP1 Barrett_NP1 Browning_NP1 's_GE poetry_NN1 be_VBI regarded_VVN as_CSA subversive_JJ ?_? 
With_IW this_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO question_NN1 ,_, be_VBI careful_JJ not_XX just_RR to_TO make_VVI a_AT1 list_NN1 ._. 
Pay_VV0 particular_JJ attention_NN1 to_II the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT different_JJ ways_NN2 you_PPY identify_VV0 ,_, and_CC be_VBI as_RG explicit_JJ as_CSA you_PPY can_VM about_II the_AT connections_NN2 between_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
Differentiate_VV0 the_AT mimetic_JJ and/or_CC dramaturgic_JJ procedures_NN2 used_VVN in_II two_MC or_CC more_DAR of_IO Shakespeare_NP1 's_GE last_MD plays_NN2 ._. 
With_IW this_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO question_NN1 ,_, you_PPY are_VBR asked_VVN to_TO identify_VVI and_CC compare_VVI ._. 
As_CSA you_PPY do_VD0 so_RR ,_, try_VV0 to_TO build_VVI up_RP a_AT1 system_NN1 of_IO classification_NN1 ,_, explaining_VVG your_APPGE basis_NN1 for_IF making_VVG distinctions_NN2 ._. 
Are_VBR Shakespeare_NP1 's_GE last_MD plays_VVZ more_RGR concerned_JJ with_IW the_AT absence_NN1 of_IO families_NN2 or_CC with_IW absent_JJ families_NN2 ?_? 
With_IW such_DA questions_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 major_JJ task_NN1 lies_VVZ in_II unpacking_VVG the_AT word-play_NN1 ,_, and_CC making_VVG clear_JJ the_AT distinctions_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR drawing_VVG from_II the_AT formulation_NN1 of_IO the_AT question_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY could_VM begin_VVI your_APPGE essay_NN1 by_II acknowledging_VVG this_DD1 and_CC continue_VV0 to_TO work_VVI with_IW the_AT definitions_NN2 throughout_II the_AT essay_NN1 ,_, relating_VVG the_AT different_JJ definitions_NN2 together_RL in_II the_AT conclusion_NN1 ._. 
Consider_VV0 some_DD of_IO the_AT expressive_JJ purposes_NN2 of_IO the_AT rendition_NN1 of_IO places_NN2 in_II Henry_NP1 James_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 question_NN1 only_RR asks_VVZ you_PPY to_TO consider_VVI &quot;_" some_DD &quot;_" of_IO James_NP1 's_GE expressive_JJ purposes_NN2 ._. 
Words_NN2 like_II &quot;_" some_DD &quot;_" in_II examination_NN1 questions_NN2 are_VBR there_RL to_TO show_VVI that_CST examiners_NN2 do_VD0 n't_XX think_VVI exhaustive_JJ answers_NN2 are_VBR possible_JJ ;_; any_DD response_NN1 will_VM be_VBI partial_JJ ._. 
But_CCB this_DD1 does_VDZ not_XX mean_VVI you_PPY should_VM limit_VVI yourself_PPX1 in_II how_RGQ many_DA2 expressive_JJ purposes_NN2 you_PPY discuss_VV0 ._. 
Discuss_VV0 all_DB the_AT &quot;_" expressive_JJ purposes_NN2 &quot;_" you_PPY can_VM think_VVI of._NNU (_( d_ZZ1 )_) General_JJ invitations_NN2 but_CCB to_II what_DDQ ?_? 
Write_VV0 on_II Jonson_NP1 's_GE use_NN1 of_IO location_NN1 in_II any_DD three_MC of_IO his_APPGE works_NN ._. 
Write_VV0 on_II Milton_NP1 's_GE humour_NN1 ._. 
With_IW these_DD2 apparently_RR vague_JJ questions_NN2 it_PPH1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO make_VVI clear_JJ your_APPGE own_DA interpretation_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ &quot;_" write_VV0 &quot;_" means_NN ._. 
Roughly_RR ,_, you_PPY can_VM take_VVI it_PPH1 as_RG synonymous_JJ with_IW &quot;_" describe_VV0 and_CC discuss_VV0 &quot;_" ._. 
The_AT special_JJ difficulty_NN1 here_RL is_VBZ that_CST since_CS relatively_RR little_JJ essay_NN1 structure_NN1 is_VBZ signalled_VVN by_II the_AT question_NN1 itself_PPX1 ,_, in_II your_APPGE first_MD paragraph_NN1 you_PPY will_VM have_VHI to_TO make_VVI very_RG clear_JJ to_II your_APPGE examiner_NN1 what_DDQ shape_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR imposing_VVG on_II your_APPGE discussion._NNU (_( e_ZZ1 )_) Complex_JJ questions_NN2 &quot;_" In_II natural_JJ objects_NN2 we_PPIS2 feel_VV0 ourselves_PPX2 ,_, or_CC think_VV0 of_IO ourselves_PPX2 ,_, only_RR by_II likenesses_NN2 among_II men_NN2 too_RG often_RR by_II differences_NN2 &quot;_" (_( Coleridge_NP1 )_) ._. 
In_II41 the_II42 light_II43 of_II44 this_DD1 statement_NN1 consider_VV0 the_AT presentation_NN1 of_IO the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT self_NN1 and_CC the_AT world_NN1 in_II the_AT work_NN1 of_IO any_DD one_MC1 writer_NN1 of_IO the_AT period_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 rather_RG convoluted_JJ question_NN1 fits_VVZ a_AT1 particular_JJ pattern_NN1 which_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ useful_JJ to_TO familiarise_VVI yourself_PPX1 with_IW :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) a_AT1 quote_NN1 captures_VVZ a_AT1 general_JJ perception_NN1 ;_; then_RT (_( b_ZZ1 )_) you_PPY are_VBR asked_VVN about_II some_DD other_JJ writer_NN1 (_( or_CC invited_VVD to_TO select_VVI a_AT1 writer_NN1 )_) where_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ plausible_JJ to_TO think_VVI the_AT quote_NN1 may_VM be_VBI relevant_JJ ;_; then_RT (_( c_ZZ1 )_) you_PPY are_VBR asked_VVN to_TO discuss_VVI this_DD1 second_NNT1 writer_NN1 in_II41 the_II42 light_II43 of_II44 the_AT quote_NN1 ._. 
Note_VV0 that_CST your_APPGE essay_NN1 in_II this_DD1 case_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX centrally_RR concerned_JJ with_IW Coleridge_NP1 ;_; in_II fact_NN1 you_PPY will_VM almost_RR certainly_RR do_VDI less_RRR well_RR if_CS you_PPY write_VV0 about_II Coleridge_NP1 than_CSN if_CS you_PPY discuss_VV0 a_AT1 different_JJ author_NN1 ._. 
We_PPIS2 can_VM sum_VVI up_RP this_DD1 discussion_NN1 of_IO exam_NN1 questions_NN2 with_IW the_AT following_JJ pieces_NN2 of_IO guidance_NN1 (_( in_II Chapter_NN1 5_MC ,_, we_PPIS2 consider_VV0 in_RP more_DAR detail_NN1 how_RRQ you_PPY actually_RR write_VV0 the_AT passages_NN2 which_DDQ perform_VV0 the_AT functions_NN2 we_PPIS2 suggest_VV0 here_RL )_) :_: *_FU Write_VV0 an_AT1 introductory_JJ paragraph_NN1 ,_, but_CCB do_VD0 n't_XX use_VVI it_PPH1 as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 to_TO put_VVI off_RP answering_VVG the_AT question_NN1 ._. 
Instead_RR ,_, use_VV0 the_AT first_MD paragraph_NN1 as_II an_AT1 opportunity_NN1 to_TO translate_VVI the_AT question_NN1 into_II your_APPGE own_DA words_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB do_VD0 n't_XX use_VVI the_AT same_DA wording_NN1 as_CSA in_II the_AT question_NN1 and_CC do_VD0 n't_XX translate_VVI &quot;_" word_NN1 for_IF word_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; reformulation_NN1 and_CC reorganisation_NN1 will_VM force_VVI you_PPY to_TO understand_VVI the_AT question_NN1 and_CC show_VVI your_APPGE examiner_NN1 that_CST you_PPY do_VD0 ._. 
Translate_VV0 technical_JJ words_NN2 into_II ordinary_JJ language_NN1 wherever_RRQV possible._NNU *_FU Where_RRQ a_AT1 question_NN1 seems_VVZ broad_JJ or_CC general_NN1 ,_, explain_VV0 how_RRQ you_PPY are_VBR interpreting_VVG it_PPH1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO make_VVI it_PPH1 more_RGR manageable._NNU *_FU The_AT question_NN1 may_VM not_XX tell_VVI you_PPY to_TO give_VVI examples_NN2 ,_, but_CCB you_PPY should_VM ,_, and_CC you_PPY should_VM show_VVI how_RRQ the_AT examples_NN2 relate_VV0 to_II your_APPGE answer._NNU *_FU The_AT question_NN1 may_VM not_XX directly_RR ask_VVI you_PPY for_IF a_AT1 conclusion_NN1 ,_, but_CCB give_VV0 one_MC1 anyway._NNU *_FU Do_VD0 n't_XX talk_VVI about_II yourself_PPX1 or_CC comment_VV0 on_II the_AT exam_NN1 unless_CS you_PPY are_VBR explicitly_RR asked_VVN to._NNU 1.5_MC EXAM_NN1 TECHNIQUES_NN2 AND_CC STRATEGIES_NN2 Writing_VVG an_AT1 exam_NN1 answer_NN1 is_VBZ like_II writing_VVG a_AT1 homework_NN1 essay_NN1 question_NN1 ,_, with_IW some_DD differences_NN2 which_DDQ point_VV0 to_II strategies_NN2 you_PPY should_VM learn_VVI ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ helpful_JJ ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, to_TO look_VVI at_II past_JJ questions_NN2 ,_, bearing_VVG in_II mind_NN1 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ usually_RR only_RR a_AT1 limited_JJ range_NN1 of_IO possible_JJ questions_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI asked_VVN about_II any_DD given_JJ topic_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT examination_NN1 itself_PPX1 ,_, divide_VV0 up_RP the_AT time_NNT1 on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO how_RRQ the_AT marks_NN2 are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI distributed_VVN ;_; if_CS you_PPY run_VV0 out_II21 of_II22 time_NNT1 for_IF your_APPGE first_MD answer_NN1 ,_, quickly_RR sketch_VV0 a_AT1 conclusion_NN1 and_CC move_VV0 on_RP to_II the_AT next_MD question_NN1 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY have_VH0 provided_VVN at_RR21 least_RR22 a_AT1 general_JJ indication_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 in_II all_DB the_AT questions_NN2 ._. 
(_( More_DAR marks_NN2 are_VBR typically_RR lost_VVN by_II failing_VVG to_TO write_VVI one_MC1 answer_NN1 altogether_RR than_CSN by_II presenting_VVG two_MC or_CC three_MC answers_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR slightly_RR weaker_JJR than_CSN you_PPY would_VM have_VHI wished_VVN ._. )_) 
Keep_VV0 your_APPGE paper_NN1 tidy_JJ (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, by_II deleting_VVG all_DB notes_NN2 at_II the_AT end_NN1 )_) ,_, but_CCB do_VD0 n't_XX use_VVI correcting_VVG fluid_NN1 to_TO remove_VVI errors_NN2 (_( it_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 sure_JJ way_NN1 of_IO telling_VVG your_APPGE examiner_NN1 that_CST you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO focus_VVI on_II appearance_NN1 at_II the_AT expense_NN1 of_IO content_NN1 )_) ._. 
By_II31 way_II32 of_II33 general_JJ preparation_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 can_VM also_RR be_VBI useful_JJ to_TO prepare_VVI material_NN1 in_II component_JJ prefabricated_JJ &quot;_" packages_NN2 &quot;_" before_II the_AT exam_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
When_CS you_PPY come_VV0 to_TO answer_VVI an_AT1 exam_NN1 question_NN1 ,_, remember_VV0 that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ probably_RR asking_VVG you_PPY to_TO carry_VVI out_RP a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO different_JJ tasks_NN2 ._. 
Begin_VV0 by_II jotting_VVG down_RP what_DDQ you_PPY think_VV0 they_PPHS2 are_VBR ,_, plus_II any_DD thoughts_NN2 this_DD1 triggers_VVZ off_RP ._. 
This_DD1 stage_NN1 resembles_VVZ planning_VVG your_APPGE essay_NN1 outline_NN1 ,_, and_CC could_VM give_VVI you_PPY your_APPGE necessary_JJ paragraph_NN1 headings_NN2 (_( particularly_RR since_CS an_AT1 exam_NN1 essay_NN1 gives_VVZ room_NN1 for_IF only_RR a_AT1 few_DA2 paragraphs_NN2 )_) ._. 
The_AT question_NN1 is_VBZ now_RT in_II simpler_JJR units_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY can_VM address_VVI in_II turn_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 might_VM include_VVI :_: problems_NN2 put_VVN into_II the_AT formulation_NN1 of_IO the_AT question_NN1 words_NN2 which_DDQ need_VV0 definition_NN1 or_CC explanation_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ;_; established_JJ views_NN2 on_II the_AT issue_NN1 raised_VVN by_II the_AT question_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ you_PPY will_VM have_VHI learned_VVN about_RP in_II the_AT class_NN1 or_CC by_II your_APPGE own_DA reading_NN1 ;_; examples_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY can_VM use_VVI to_TO illustrate_VVI specific_JJ points_NN2 (_( list_VV0 the_AT points_NN2 which_DDQ each_DD1 example_NN1 illustrates_VVZ )_) ;_; crucial_JJ technical_JJ terms_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO introduce_VVI (_( e.g._REX an_AT1 appropriate_JJ vocabulary_NN1 for_IF describing_VVG the_AT rhyme_NN1 scheme_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 poem_NN1 )_) ;_; historical_JJ context_NN1 which_DDQ needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI introduced_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO answer_VVI a_AT1 question_NN1 about_II a_AT1 writer_NN1 from_II an_AT1 earlier_JJR period_NN1 ._. 
Establish_VV0 in_II your_APPGE mind_NN1 the_AT scope_NN1 and_CC boundaries_NN2 of_IO the_AT material_NN1 which_DDQ will_VM be_VBI relevant_JJ ,_, bearing_VVG in_II mind_NN1 the_AT formulation_NN1 of_IO the_AT question_NN1 (_( &quot;_" choose_VV0 two_MC plays_NN2 by_II Shakespeare_NP1 &quot;_" ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) ._. 
Divide_VV0 up_RP the_AT time_NNT1 available_JJ for_IF the_AT question_NN1 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 your_APPGE answer_NN1 ,_, though_CS short_JJ ,_, is_VBZ still_RR properly_RR proportioned._NNU 1.6_MC DEVISING_VVG YOUR_APPGE OWN_DA TITLE_NN1 The_AT titles_NN2 you_PPY choose_VV0 for_IF essays_NN2 you_PPY devise_VV0 yourself_PPX1 can_VM ,_, if_CS you_PPY want_VV0 them_PPHO2 to_TO ,_, be_VBI made_VVN closely_RR to_TO resemble_VVI the_AT sorts_NN2 of_IO questions_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR set_VVN as_CSA prescribed_JJ essays_NN2 or_CC in_II exams_NN2 ._. 
Accordingly_RR ,_, when_CS you_PPY have_VH0 identified_VVN the_AT areas_NN2 in_RR21 common_RR22 ,_, and_CC the_AT divergences_NN2 ,_, between_II exam_NN1 questions_NN2 and_CC essay_NN1 topics_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE own_DA ,_, you_PPY can_VM draw_VVI appropriately_RR on_II skills_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 learnt_VVN in_II one_MC1 kind_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 while_CS doing_VDG another_DD1 ._. 
With_IW this_DD1 in_II mind_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 now_RT consider_VV0 some_DD of_IO the_AT distinct_JJ characteristics_NN2 of_IO essay_NN1 titles_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 title_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 statement_NN1 encapsulating_VVG the_AT main_JJ points_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 argument_NN1 ;_; in_II most_DAT cases_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 could_VM be_VBI rewritten_VVN in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 question_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ being_VBG answered_VVN by_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 ._. 
The_AT title_NN1 Undervalued_VVD achievement_NN1 :_: the_AT contribution_NN1 of_IO Ralph_NP1 Ellison_NP1 's_GE Invisible_JJ Man_NN1 to_II the_AT development_NN1 of_IO AfricanAmerican_JJ fiction._NNU could_VM be_VBI used_VVN for_IF an_AT1 essay_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ an_AT1 answer_NN1 to_II the_AT question_NN1 Assess_VV0 the_AT contribution_NN1 made_VVN by_II Ralph_NP1 Ellison_NP1 's_GE Invisible_JJ Man_NN1 to_II the_AT development_NN1 of_IO AfricanAmerican_JJ fiction._NNU or_CC to_II the_AT question_NN1 &quot;_" The_AT contribution_NN1 made_VVN by_II Ralph_NP1 Ellison_NP1 's_GE Invisible_JJ Man_NN1 to_II the_AT development_NN1 of_IO AfricanAmerican_JJ fiction_NN1 is_VBZ undervalued_VVN ._. 
&quot;_" Discuss_VV0 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 way_NN1 ,_, titles_NN2 can_VM be_VBI the_AT mirror_NN1 image_NN1 of_IO examination_NN1 questions_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR phrases_NN2 which_DDQ indicate_VV0 a_AT1 topic_NN1 of_IO interest_NN1 (_( i.e._REX your_APPGE focus_NN1 )_) and_CC at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 point_NN1 towards_II a_AT1 particular_JJ kind_NN1 of_IO discussion_NN1 (_( i.e._REX your_APPGE mode_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 )_) ._. 
Accordingly_RR ,_, your_APPGE title_NN1 needs_VVZ not_XX only_RR to_TO indicate_VVI what_DDQ the_AT essay_NN1 will_VM be_VBI about_RP ,_, but_CCB also_RR the_AT point_NN1 of_IO view_NN1 it_PPH1 will_VM adopt_VVI concerning_II whatever_DDQV it_PPH1 is_VBZ about_RP ._. 
In_II the_AT example_NN1 above_RL ,_, the_AT phrase_NN1 &quot;_" Undervalued_VVD achievement_NN1 &quot;_" does_VDZ this_DD1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR certain_JJ typical_JJ characteristics_NN2 of_IO the_AT form_NN1 of_IO essay_NN1 and_CC dissertation_NN1 titles_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY can_VM build_VVI on_RP ._. 
Note_VV0 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT common_JJ form_NN1 &quot;_" title_NN1 plus_II sub-title_NN1 &quot;_" :_: The_AT Text_NN1 and_CC the_AT Reader_NN1 :_: Construction_NN1 of_IO meaning_VVG in_II advertising_NN1 texts_NN2 (_( title_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Master_NN1 's_GE thesis_NN1 )_) ._. 
Marx_NP1 and_CC Spenser_NP1 :_: Elizabeth_NP1 and_CC the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO Imperial_JJ Power_NN1 (_( draft_VV0 title_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 PhD_NN1 thesis_NN1 )_) ._. 
The_AT formula_NN1 here_RL involves_VVZ the_AT combination_NN1 of_IO two_MC different_JJ styles_NN2 :_: a_AT1 main_JJ title_NN1 ,_, in_II a_AT1 verbally_RR adroit_JJ ,_, catchy_JJ form_NN1 ;_; and_CC a_AT1 gloss_NN1 or_CC explanatory_JJ paraphrase_NN1 ,_, couched_VVN in_II more_RGR orthodox_JJ academic_JJ language_NN1 ._. 
In_II devising_VVG titles_NN2 ,_, avoid_VV0 over-florid_JJ forms_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 epigraphs_NN2 (_( i.e._REX quotations_NN2 placed_VVN between_II the_AT title_NN1 and_CC the_AT main_JJ body_NN1 of_IO text_NN1 )_) ,_, since_CS these_DD2 can_VM make_VVI the_AT essay_NN1 appear_VVI to_TO aspire_VVI to_II a_AT1 grandeur_NN1 or_CC scale_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 can_VM not_XX in_II the_AT circumstances_NN2 fulfil_VV0 ._. 
Such_DA titles_NN2 and_CC ornamentation_NN1 can_VM create_VVI the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO bathos_NN2 ,_, or_CC comic_JJ undermining_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY do_VD0 achieve_VVI ._. 
The_AT same_DA applies_VVZ to_II acknowledgements_NN2 (_( and_CC other_JJ devices_NN2 common_JJ in_II full-length_JJ books_NN2 )_) if_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR used_VVN in_II short_JJ essays_NN2 ._. 
If_CS in_II doubt_NN1 ,_, keep_VV0 it_PPH1 simple_JJ ._. 
As_CSA possible_JJ alternatives_NN2 to_II the_AT &quot;_" title_NN1 plus_II sub-title_NN1 &quot;_" pattern_NN1 ,_, consider_VV0 whether_CSW your_APPGE own_DA title_NN1 could_VM be_VBI a_AT1 phrase_NN1 or_CC sentence_NN1 ._. 
Compare_VV0 :_: How_RRQ readers_NN2 construct_VV0 the_AT meaning_NN1 of_IO advertising_NN1 texts_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 Marxist_JJ analysis_NN1 of_IO the_AT imperialist_JJ politics_NN1 of_IO Edmund_NP1 Spenser_NP1 's_GE The_AT Faerie_JJ Queene_NN1 Simply_RR formulating_VVG a_AT1 title_NN1 of_IO some_DD sort_NN1 can_VM be_VBI a_AT1 useful_JJ achievement_NN1 ,_, in_CS21 that_CS22 it_PPH1 helps_VVZ you_PPY decide_VVI how_RRQ you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO focus_VVI your_APPGE writing_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA you_PPY write_VV0 the_AT essay_NN1 you_PPY may_VM find_VVI that_CST the_AT focus_NN1 shifts_NN2 ,_, with_IW the_AT result_NN1 that_CST you_PPY end_VV0 up_RP rejecting_VVG the_AT original_JJ title_NN1 and_CC finding_VVG a_AT1 more_RGR suitable_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
This_DD1 common_JJ experience_NN1 recommends_VVZ the_AT approach_NN1 to_II writing_VVG which_DDQ says_VVZ that_CST you_PPY should_VM start_VVI immediately_RR by_II writing_VVG your_APPGE ideas_NN2 down_RP ,_, being_VBG prepared_VVN to_TO discard_VVI them_PPHO2 later_RRR when_CS your_APPGE thinking_NN1 has_VHZ evolved_VVN beyond_II your_APPGE early_JJ plan_NN1 ._. 
More_RGR generally_RR ,_, it_PPH1 illustrates_VVZ how_RRQ everything_PN1 you_PPY do_VD0 even_RR your_APPGE choice_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 title_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 part_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE thinking_NN1 about_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 ,_, and_CC contributes_VVZ to_II its_APPGE development._NNU 1.7_MC BEING_VBG ORIGINAL_JJ Whatever_DDQV you_PPY write_VV0 ,_, it_PPH1 should_VM be_VBI in_II some_DD sense_NN1 original_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB &quot;_" originality_NN1 &quot;_" presents_VVZ a_AT1 difficult_JJ problem_NN1 because_CS (_( unless_CS you_PPY are_VBR doing_VDG advanced_JJ research_NN1 )_) you_PPY are_VBR unlikely_JJ to_TO be_VBI in_II a_AT1 position_NN1 to_TO advance_VVI new_JJ facts_NN2 or_CC radically_RR new_JJ interpretations_NN2 ,_, or_CC even_RR to_TO have_VHI a_AT1 wide_RR enough_DD knowledge_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ other_JJ people_NN have_VH0 written_VVN to_TO be_VBI sure_JJ that_CST you_PPY are_VBR not_XX duplicating_VVG it_PPH1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ especially_RR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI the_AT case_NN1 with_IW short_JJ essays_NN2 and_CC exam_NN1 answers_NN2 ,_, where_CS you_PPY clearly_RR can_VM not_XX be_VBI expected_VVN to_TO be_VBI &quot;_" original_JJ &quot;_" in_II the_AT sense_NN1 in_II which_DDQ a_AT1 researcher_NN1 or_CC expert_NN1 in_II the_AT field_NN1 might_VM be_VBI expected_VVN to_TO be_VBI ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY will_VM ,_, nevertheless_RR ,_, be_VBI expected_VVN to_TO be_VBI original_JJ in_II the_AT sense_NN1 of_IO using_VVG your_APPGE own_DA knowledge_NN1 and_CC independent_JJ judgement_NN1 to_TO argue_VVI an_AT1 original_JJ case_NN1 ._. 
Your_APPGE case_NN1 gains_VVZ its_APPGE originality_NN1 from_II the_AT way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ you_PPY compare_VV0 and_CC weigh_VV0 the_AT different_JJ strengths_NN2 and_CC weaknesses_NN2 of_IO existing_JJ arguments_NN2 in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 the_AT text_NN1 or_CC texts_NN2 being_VBG discussed_VVN ,_, and_CC by_II choosing_VVG different_JJ examples_NN2 from_II those_DD2 presented_VVN in_II works_NN you_PPY have_VH0 read_VVN or_CC lectures_VVZ you_PPY have_VH0 attended_VVN ._. 
Faced_VVN with_IW the_AT challenge_NN1 of_IO being_VBG original_JJ in_II this_DD1 way_NN1 ,_, some_DD student_NN1 writers_NN2 believe_VV0 that_CST they_PPHS2 should_VM copy_VVI or_CC adapt_VVI other_JJ people_NN 's_GE work_NN1 because_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ bound_VVNK to_TO be_VBI of_IO better_JJR quality_NN1 than_CSN their_APPGE own_DA ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ inappropriate_JJ for_IF a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO reasons_NN2 :_: first_MD ,_, because_CS you_PPY are_VBR primarily_RR assessed_VVN on_II relative_JJ quality_NN1 (_( &quot;_" good_JJ for_IF a_AT1 second-year_JJ dissertation_NN1 &quot;_" )_) rather_II21 than_II22 absolute_JJ quality_NN1 ;_; second_MD ,_, because_CS there_EX is_VBZ no_AT point_NN1 in_II simply_RR rewriting_VVG someone_PN1 else_RR 's_GE ideas_NN2 (_( you_PPY might_VM as_RR21 well_RR22 submit_VVI their_APPGE original_JJ book_NN1 or_CC article_NN1 instead_RR )_) ;_; and_CC third_MD ,_, because_CS it_PPH1 underestimates_VVZ the_AT possibilities_NN2 of_IO disagreement_NN1 ,_, adaptation_NN1 and_CC development_NN1 which_DDQ exist_VV0 in_II all_DB areas_NN2 of_IO the_AT field_NN1 ._. 
Homage_NN1 to_II the_AT achievement_NN1 of_IO established_JJ authors_NN2 ,_, expressed_VVN in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO direct_JJ copying_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ not_XX an_AT1 accepted_JJ mode_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG essays_NN2 or_CC dissertations_NN2 in_II (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 )_) British_JJ universities_NN2 and_CC colleges_NN2 ._. 
Therefore_RR ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ in_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 always_RR to_TO identify_VVI what_DDQ is_VBZ original_JJ and_CC what_DDQ is_VBZ not_XX ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX just_RR a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO showing_VVG that_CST you_PPY are_VBR not_XX stealing_VVG or_CC plagiarising_VVG other_JJ people_NN 's_GE work_NN1 ._. 
At_RR21 least_RR22 as_CSA important_JJ is_VBZ the_AT process_NN1 of_IO making_VVG explicit_JJ the_AT argument_NN1 structure_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 ._. 
By_II acknowledging_VVG sources_NN2 ,_, you_PPY show_VV0 the_AT foundations_NN2 for_IF the_AT speculations_NN2 or_CC conclusions_NN2 you_PPY yourself_PPX1 are_VBR adding_VVG ._. 
If_CS you_PPY simply_RR insert_VV0 other_JJ people_NN 's_GE material_NN1 unacknowledged_JJ into_II your_APPGE own_DA ,_, another_DD1 danger_NN1 arises_VVZ ,_, too_RR :_: that_CST your_APPGE writing_NN1 becomes_VVZ structurally_RR incoherent_JJ (_( something_PN1 we_PPIS2 discuss_VV0 further_RRR in_II Chapter_NN1 5_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 10910_MC )_) ._. 
1.8_MC PLANNING_VVG AN_AT1 ESSAY_NN1 :_: FORMAT_VV0 AND_CC PROPORTION_NN1 In_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO think_VVI ahead_RL about_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 or_CC dissertation_NN1 you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO consider_VVI its_APPGE overall_JJ length_NN1 and_CC the_AT length_NN1 of_IO the_AT parts_NN2 which_DDQ comprise_VV0 it_PPH1 ._. 
This_DD1 means_VVZ making_VVG decisions_NN2 very_RG early_RR on_RP about_II the_AT contents_NN2 of_IO the_AT whole_JJ essay_NN1 (_( e.g._REX by_II writing_VVG an_AT1 initial_JJ synopsis_NN1 )_) ._. 
As_CSA in_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO the_AT title_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, possible_JJ and_CC sometimes_RT necessary_JJ to_TO change_VVI the_AT synopsis_NN1 as_CSA you_PPY progress_VV0 ._. 
You_PPY just_RR need_VV0 something_PN1 to_TO start_VVI you_PPY off_II that_DD1 can_VM then_RT be_VBI modified_VVN as_CSA you_PPY go_VV0 along_RP ._. 
How_RGQ much_DA1 should_VM you_PPY write_VVI ?_? 
Below_RL ,_, we_PPIS2 indicate_VV0 some_DD typical_JJ essay_NN1 lengths_NN2 ._. 
(_( You_PPY may_VM find_VVI that_CST your_APPGE course_NN1 ,_, college_NN1 or_CC university_NN1 has_VHZ rules_NN2 for_IF upper_JJ and_CC lower_JJR limits_NN2 ,_, so_RR check_VV0 these_DD2 before_II you_PPY start_VV0 ._. )_) 
Unless_CS you_PPY are_VBR using_VVG a_AT1 word-processor_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 word-count_JJ facility_NN1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ little_DA1 point_NN1 counting_VVG every_AT1 word_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 estimate_NN1 is_VBZ enough_RR ._. 
Work_VV0 out_RP an_AT1 average_JJ number_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 per_II line_NN1 and_CC lines_NN2 per_II page_NN1 ,_, and_CC this_DD1 will_VM give_VVI you_PPY a_AT1 typical_JJ number_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 per_II page_NN1 ._. 
Multiplying_VVG this_DD1 by_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO pages_NN2 is_VBZ enough_DD to_TO show_VVI a_AT1 rough_JJ total_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ should_VM tally_VVI adequately_RR with_IW tutors_NN2 '_GE estimates_NN2 and_CC impressions_NN2 (_( since_CS they_PPHS2 wo_VM n't_XX count_VVI the_AT individual_JJ words_NN2 either_RR )_) ._. 
When_CS you_PPY have_VH0 noted_VVN the_AT overall_JJ length_NN1 you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO produce_VVI ,_, divide_VV0 this_DD1 length_NN1 into_II suitable_JJ proportions_NN2 for_IF your_APPGE argument_NN1 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 not_XX only_RR will_VM you_PPY not_XX run_VVI out_II21 of_II22 space_NN1 but_CCB the_AT essay_NN1 will_VM have_VHI a_AT1 &quot;_" balance_NN1 &quot;_" as_CSA it_PPH1 develops_VVZ ,_, with_IW worked-out_JJ proportions_NN2 being_VBG given_VVN to_II each_DD1 stage_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 means_VVZ deciding_VVG from_II the_AT beginning_NN1 a_AT1 rough_JJ breakdown_NN1 of_IO the_AT parts_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE final_JJ essay_NN1 :_: to_TO achieve_VVI this_DD1 ,_, you_PPY should_VM write_VVI an_AT1 OUTLINE_NN1 ._. 
Then_RT you_PPY can_VM assign_VVI half_DB a_AT1 page_NN1 to_II an_AT1 introductory_JJ paragraph_NN1 ,_, one_MC1 page_NN1 to_II the_AT summary_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ other_JJ people_NN have_VH0 said_VVN ,_, etc_RA ._. 
If_CS you_PPY have_VH0 a_AT1 detailed_JJ outline_NN1 of_IO the_AT structure_NN1 and_CC proportions_NN2 ,_, then_RT if_CS the_AT essay_NN1 becomes_VVZ too_RG long_RR ,_, you_PPY can_VM work_VVI out_RP more_RRR precisely_RR where_CS deletions_NN2 need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI made_VVN :_: take_VV0 out_RP redundant_JJ or_CC duplicated_VVD examples_NN2 ;_; cut_NN1 lists_VVZ shorter_JJR ,_, reduce_VV0 alternative_JJ words_NN2 offered_VVN as_CSA glosses_NN2 ,_, etc_RA ._. 
In_II this_DD1 way_NN1 you_PPY can_VM shorten_VVI your_APPGE essay_NN1 without_IW losing_VVG its_APPGE balance_NN1 or_CC structure_NN1 (_( which_DDQ would_VM happen_VVI if_CSW you_PPY just_RR cut_VV0 the_AT end_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 )_) ._. 
1.9_MC GETTING_VVG STARTED_VVN :_: OUTLINES_NN2 AND_CC EARLY_JJ DRAFTS_NN2 Speculating_VVG about_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 is_VBZ one_MC1 thing_NN1 ;_; actually_RR starting_VVG to_TO write_VVI it_PPH1 is_VBZ another_DD1 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY look_VV0 at_II your_APPGE first_MD blank_JJ page_NN1 and_CC freeze_NN1 ,_, how_RRQ do_VD0 you_PPY unfreeze_VVI yourself_PPX1 and_CC get_VVI started_VVN ?_? 
In_II this_DD1 section_NN1 we_PPIS2 look_VV0 at_II some_DD ways_NN2 of_IO doing_VDG this_DD1 ,_, and_CC more_RGR generally_RR of_IO getting_VVG from_II the_AT planning_NN1 stage_NN1 to_II the_AT writing_NN1 stage_NN1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ of_RR21 course_RR22 no_AT single_JJ correct_JJ way_NN1 ;_; everyone_PN1 writes_VVZ differently_RR ._. 
One_MC1 productive_JJ starting_NN1 point_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO break_VVI the_AT illusion_NN1 that_CST writing_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 &quot;_" gestation_NN1 &quot;_" process_NN1 of_IO waiting_VVG for_IF inspiration_NN1 until_CS the_AT essay_NN1 forms_VVZ itself_PPX1 ,_, fully-fledged_JJ ,_, in_II your_APPGE mind_NN1 and_CC just_RR needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI written_VVN down_RP ._. 
Even_RR in_II exam_NN1 situations_NN2 ,_, there_EX needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI some_DD initial_JJ planning_NN1 and_CC rough_JJ drafting_NN1 before_II starting_VVG on_II the_AT main_JJ process_NN1 of_IO composition_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB generally_RR it_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 good_JJ idea_NN1 to_TO start_VVI writing_VVG in_II some_DD form_NN1 as_CS31 soon_CS32 as_CS33 you_PPY can_VM ._. 
Be_VB0 willing_JJ to_TO do_VDI disposable_JJ work_NN1 ._. 
Versions_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY know_VV0 you_PPY are_VBR going_VVGK to_TO throw_VVI away_RL often_RR allow_VV0 you_PPY to_TO experiment_VVI in_II ways_NN2 that_CST you_PPY would_VM n't_XX risk_VVI in_II a_AT1 draft_NN1 you_PPY consider_VV0 &quot;_" final_JJ &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" near_JJ final_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
By_II thinking_VVG that_CST everything_PN1 is_VBZ final_JJ that_CST it_PPH1 must_VM pass_VVI your_APPGE own_DA &quot;_" quality_NN1 control_NN1 &quot;_" test_VV0 you_PPY greatly_RR reduce_VV0 the_AT likelihood_NN1 of_IO producing_VVG any_DD work_NN1 at_RR21 all_RR22 ._. 
Remember_VV0 that_CST in_II the_AT production_NN1 of_IO texts_NN2 for_IF non-examined_JJ purposes_NN2 (_( e.g._REX committee_NN1 reports_NN2 ,_, novels_NN2 ,_, paintings_NN2 ,_, films_NN2 )_) ,_, rough_JJ versions_NN2 ,_, sketches_NN2 and_CC drafts_NN2 are_VBR the_AT norm_NN1 ._. 
So_RR there_EX is_VBZ no_AT reason_NN1 why_RRQ you_PPY should_VM n't_XX do_VDI a_AT1 rough-cut_NN1 ,_, followed_VVN by_II a_AT1 fine-cut_NN1 ,_, before_CS you_PPY start_VV0 on_II your_APPGE final_JJ version_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX necessarily_RR an_AT1 increase_NN1 in_II your_APPGE workload_NN1 :_: drafting_NN1 and_CC redrafting_VVG allows_VVZ lower-intensity_JJ and_CC less_RGR stressful_JJ work_NN1 than_CSN packing_VVG everything_PN1 into_II a_AT1 single_JJ and_CC decisive_JJ act_NN1 of_IO composition_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR useful_JJ if_CS someone_PN1 is_VBZ prepared_VVN to_TO read_VVI your_APPGE rough_JJ versions_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 need_VM not_XX be_VBI your_APPGE tutor_NN1 ;_; even_RR someone_PN1 who_PNQS knows_VVZ nothing_PN1 about_II the_AT subject_NN1 can_VM say_VVI whether_CSW you_PPY are_VBR making_VVG sense_NN1 ._. 
Break_VV0 down_RP the_AT process_NN1 of_IO constructing_VVG an_AT1 essay_NN1 into_II easy_JJ small_JJ steps_NN2 ._. 
Make_VV0 notes_NN2 ,_, draft_VV0 paragraphs_NN2 ,_, keep_VV0 rewriting_VVG short_JJ outlines_NN2 ._. 
Each_DD1 step_NN1 you_PPY take_VV0 provides_VVZ scaffolding_NN1 which_DDQ will_VM enable_VVI you_PPY to_TO build_VVI the_AT essay_NN1 a_RR21 little_RR22 further_RRR ._. 
You_PPY note_VV0 your_APPGE arguments_NN2 on_II a_AT1 piece_NN1 of_IO paper_NN1 ;_; they_PPHS2 look_VV0 wrong_JJ ,_, so_CS you_PPY edit_VV0 the_AT notes_NN2 ,_, making_VVG them_PPHO2 clearer_JJR or_CC more_RGR coherent_JJ ._. 
The_AT next_MD day_NNT1 ,_, as_CSA you_PPY come_VV0 at_II the_AT problems_NN2 with_IW a_AT1 fresh_JJ eye_NN1 (_( or_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 from_II a_AT1 slightly_RR different_JJ angle_NN1 )_) ,_, the_AT notes_NN2 look_VV0 wrong_JJ again_RT ,_, but_CCB this_DD1 time_NNT1 for_IF slightly_RR different_JJ reasons_NN2 ._. 
So_RR you_PPY do_VD0 further_JJR editing_NN1 ._. 
The_AT text_NN1 evolves_VVZ ,_, through_II successive_JJ steps_NN2 of_IO minor_JJ redrafting_VVG rather_II21 than_II22 through_II the_AT more_RGR mysterious_JJ process_NN1 of_IO gestation_NN1 ,_, and_CC with_IW less_DAR chance_NN1 of_IO outside_JJ events_NN2 or_CC circumstances_NN2 making_VVG you_PPY forget_VVI where_RRQ you_PPY have_VH0 got_VVN to_TO ._. 
Make_VV0 a_AT1 timetable_NN1 ._. 
Step-by-step_NP1 writing_NN1 allows_VVZ you_PPY to_TO do_VDI this_DD1 ,_, and_CC commits_VVZ you_PPY to_II making_VVG progress_NN1 ,_, even_CS21 if_CS22 later_RRR you_PPY discard_VV0 what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 done_VDN ._. 
Bear_VV0 in_II mind_NN1 other_JJ commitments_NN2 when_CS outlining_VVG your_APPGE programme_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 (_( e.g._REX holidays_NN2 ,_, weekends_NNT2 ,_, need_VV0 for_IF rest_NN1 ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) ._. 
Be_VB0 realistic_JJ from_II the_AT outset_NN1 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY do_VD0 n't_XX become_VVI dismayed_JJ by_II your_APPGE inability_NN1 to_TO keep_VVI to_II your_APPGE own_DA timetable_NN1 ._. 
As_II part_NN1 of_IO the_AT process_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG from_II the_AT very_JJ beginning_NN1 ,_, and_CC writing_VVG in_II small_JJ steps_NN2 ,_, from_II the_AT first_MD day_NNT1 you_PPY should_VM write_VVI down_RP ,_, and_CC keep_VVI available_JJ ,_, notes_NN2 consisting_VVG of_IO a_AT1 few_DA2 sentences_NN2 on_II each_DD1 of_IO the_AT following_JJ :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) the_AT essay_NN1 's_GE hypothesis_NN1 (_( the_AT claim_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ interested_JJ in_II exploring_VVG )_) ;_; (_( b_ZZ1 )_) the_AT evidence_NN1 or_CC data_NN you_PPY are_VBR going_VVGK to_TO use_VVI (_( the_AT facts_NN2 ,_, quotes_NN2 ,_, parallel_JJ cases_NN2 from_II other_JJ texts_NN2 ,_, etc._RA ,_, that_CST you_PPY are_VBR in_II the_AT process_NN1 of_IO collecting_VVG )_) ;_; (_( c_ZZ1 )_) brief_JJ statements_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE ideas_NN2 so_RG far_RR ;_; (_( d_ZZ1 )_) in_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 longer_JJR dissertation_NN1 ,_, the_AT preliminary_JJ results_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 &quot;_" literature_NN1 search_NN1 &quot;_" (_( a_AT1 survey_NN1 of_IO bibliographies_NN2 to_TO find_VVI things_NN2 to_TO read_VVI )_) ._. 
The_AT value_NN1 of_IO having_VHG such_DA materials_NN2 in_RR21 brief_RR22 and_CC physically_RR separate_JJ forms_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ easier_JJR to_TO manipulate_VVI ideas_NN2 while_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR still_RR in_II note_NN1 form_NN1 than_CSN it_PPH1 is_VBZ once_RR you_PPY have_VH0 written_VVN them_PPHO2 out_RP in_II prose_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 note-form_JJ outline_NN1 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 provides_VVZ a_AT1 clear_JJ conceptual_JJ structure_NN1 ,_, and_CC offers_VVZ you_PPY an_AT1 overview_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ when_CS inspected_VVN closely_RR should_VM allow_VVI you_PPY to_TO assess_VVI how_RGQ coherent_JJ it_PPH1 is_VBZ ,_, and_CC how_RGQ clearly_RR it_PPH1 moves_VVZ to_II your_APPGE conclusion_NN1 ._. 
Sometimes_RT ,_, it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI useful_JJ to_TO write_VVI each_DD1 main_JJ point_NN1 in_II the_AT argument_NN1 on_II a_AT1 separate_JJ card_NN1 or_CC sheet_NN1 of_IO paper_NN1 ,_, and_CC physically_RR reorder_VV0 them_PPHO2 on_II a_AT1 table_NN1 in_II31 front_II32 of_II33 you_PPY ,_, joining_VVG up_RP the_AT points_NN2 in_II your_APPGE mind_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 linking_NN1 commentary_NN1 ._. 
(_( How_RRQ do_VD0 you_PPY get_VVI from_II this_DD1 point_NN1 to_II this_DD1 ?_? 
What_DDQ is_VBZ it_PPH1 that_CST makes_VVZ you_PPY want_VVI to_TO put_VVI one_MC1 point_NN1 before_II another_DD1 ?_? )_) 
Before_II working_VVG on_II anything_PN1 else_RR write_VV0 a_AT1 one-paragraph_JJ SYNOPSIS_NN1 (_( a_AT1 summary_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 's_GE argument_NN1 )_) ._. 
Keep_VV0 your_APPGE synopsis_NN1 handy_JJ all_DB the_AT time_NNT1 you_PPY are_VBR writing_VVG ,_, and_CC edit_VV0 it_PPH1 periodically_RR (_( because_CS writing_VVG your_APPGE argument_NN1 down_RP will_VM probably_RR change_VVI it_PPH1 )_) ._. 
A_AT1 useful_JJ test_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO imagine_VVI that_CST you_PPY are_VBR at_II a_AT1 party_NN1 and_CC someone_PN1 asks_VVZ you_PPY what_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR writing_VVG about_II :_: your_APPGE answer_NN1 will_VM have_VHI to_TO be_VBI short_JJ ,_, coherent_JJ and_CC sufficiently_RR interesting_JJ to_TO hold_VVI the_AT attention_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 listener_NN1 who_PNQS does_VDZ not_XX have_VHI to_TO listen_VVI to_II you_PPY ._. 
The_AT best_RRT answer_VV0 you_PPY can_VM give_VVI in_RP these_DD2 circumstances_NN2 should_VM provide_VVI the_AT shape_NN1 for_IF your_APPGE synopsis_NN1 ._. 
Remember_VV0 to_TO focus_VVI ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ important_JJ is_VBZ that_CST your_APPGE essay_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI made_VVN up_RP of_IO logical_JJ or_CC structural_JJ relations_NN2 between_II points_NN2 (_( e.g._REX cause_NN1 and_CC effect_NN1 ,_, consequence_NN1 ,_, incompatibility_NN1 ,_, counter-example_NN1 )_) ,_, not_XX just_RR of_IO a_AT1 list_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 suggest_VV0 in_RP more_DAR detail_NN1 in_II Chapters_NN2 2_MC and_CC 3_MC ,_, you_PPY will_VM be_VBI able_JK to_TO find_VVI materials_NN2 more_RGR easily_RR and_CC see_VVI the_AT best_JJT arrangement_NN1 for_IF them_PPHO2 when_CS you_PPY have_VH0 formed_VVN a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR looking_VVG for_IF ._. 
Most_DAT fields_NN2 are_VBR too_RG large_JJ to_TO research_VVI convincingly_RR ,_, unless_CS you_PPY go_VV0 into_II them_PPHO2 with_IW at_RR21 least_RR22 a_AT1 provisional_JJ focus_NN1 ._. 
With_IW a_AT1 guiding_JJ aim_NN1 ,_, you_PPY tend_VV0 to_TO read_VVI with_IW a_AT1 goal_NN1 or_CC personal_JJ agenda_NN1 ;_; what_DDQ you_PPY read_VV0 falls_NN2 into_II place_NN1 ,_, at_RR21 least_RR22 relative_II21 to_II22 a_AT1 notion_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ your_APPGE interest_NN1 in_II the_AT field_NN1 is_VBZ ,_, or_CC what_DDQ perspective_NN1 you_PPY wish_VV0 to_TO adopt_VVI on_II it_PPH1 ._. 
Keep_VV0 the_AT idea_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" perspective_NN1 &quot;_" in_II mind_NN1 ,_, since_CS it_PPH1 indicates_VVZ that_CST for_IF your_APPGE purposes_NN2 some_DD materials_NN2 and_CC pieces_NN2 of_IO information_NN1 will_VM appear_VVI &quot;_" in_II the_AT foreground_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; others_NN2 are_VBR only_JJ &quot;_" background_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, further_RRR away_II21 from_II22 your_APPGE centre_NN1 of_IO interest_NN1 ._. 
Clearly_RR ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO use_VVI the_AT time_NNT1 you_PPY have_VH0 available_JJ to_TO consolidate_VVI what_DDQ is_VBZ going_VVGK to_TO be_VBI in_II the_AT foreground_NN1 what_DDQ is_VBZ central_JJ to_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 in_II mugging_VVG up_RP materials_NN2 which_DDQ at_RR21 best_RR22 can_VM only_RR ever_RR form_VVI marginal_JJ elements_NN2 of_IO the_AT final_JJ piece_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 ._. 
Finally_RR ,_, consult_VV0 essays_NN2 already_RR successfully_RR submitted_VVN ._. 
Just_RR as_CSA you_PPY can_VM prepare_VVI for_IF an_AT1 exam_NN1 by_II looking_VVG at_II old_JJ exam_NN1 questions_NN2 ,_, so_CS you_PPY can_VM prepare_VVI to_TO write_VVI a_AT1 dissertation_NN1 by_II looking_VVG at_II previous_JJ examples_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 been_VBN submitted_VVN and_CC accepted_VVN by_II your_APPGE institution_NN1 ._. 
Studying_VVG these_DD2 should_VM ensure_VVI that_CST you_PPY are_VBR not_XX completely_RR ignorant_JJ of_IO the_AT scope_NN1 ,_, length_NN1 ,_, format_NN1 and_CC demands_NN2 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR trying_VVG to_TO do._NNU 1.10_MC SOME_DD QUESTIONS_NN2 TO_TO ASK_VVI YOURSELF_PPX1 AS_CSA YOU_PPY CONSTRUCT_VV0 AN_AT1 ESSAY_NN1 As_CSA you_PPY begin_VV0 to_TO write_VVI your_APPGE outline_NN1 or_CC first_MD sketch_NN1 ,_, make_VV0 each_DD1 of_IO the_AT two_MC following_JJ types_NN2 of_IO plan_NN1 :_: a_AT1 one-page_JJ plan_NN1 describing_VVG what_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR going_VVGK to_TO do_VDI and_CC the_AT order_NN1 you_PPY intend_VV0 to_TO do_VDI it_PPH1 in_II (_( a_AT1 PROCEDURAL_JJ PLAN_NN1 )_) ;_; a_AT1 one-page_JJ plan_NN1 outlining_VVG what_DDQ your_APPGE essay_NN1 should_VM look_VVI like_CS when_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ finished_VVN (_( a_AT1 STRUCTURAL_JJ PLAN_NN1 )_) ._. 
If_CS it_PPH1 seems_VVZ easier_JJR ,_, write_VV0 your_APPGE plans_NN2 as_CSA simple_JJ diagrams_NN2 ,_, with_IW different_JJ parts_NN2 connected_VVN by_II arrows_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ ,_, though_CS ,_, to_TO limit_VVI the_AT size_NN1 of_IO the_AT plans_NN2 (_( e.g._REX ,_, to_II less_DAR than_CSN a_AT1 page_NN1 each_DD1 )_) ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY keep_VV0 a_AT1 simple_JJ overview_NN1 ._. 
The_AT structure_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE project_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI visible_JJ ,_, almost_RR at_II a_AT1 glance_NN1 ._. 
To_TO decide_VVI what_DDQ should_VM go_VVI into_II these_DD2 two_MC plans_NN2 ,_, think_VV0 your_APPGE way_NN1 carefully_RR through_II the_AT following_JJ general_JJ questions_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ should_VM either_RR suggest_VVI fresh_JJ ideas_NN2 to_II you_PPY or_CC else_RR persuade_VV0 you_PPY that_CST your_APPGE proposed_JJ topic_NN1 is_VBZ unrealisable_JJ ._. 
What_DDQ are_VBR the_AT questions_NN2 I_PPIS1 want_VV0 to_TO answer_VVI ?_? 
Try_VV0 to_TO formulate_VVI these_DD2 as_CSA questions_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 just_JJ phrases_NN2 describing_VVG an_AT1 area_NN1 of_IO interest._NNU example_NN1 If_CS you_PPY start_VV0 from_II an_AT1 area_NN1 of_IO interest_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ &quot;_" Irony_NN1 in_II Jane_NP1 Austen_NP1 's_GE novel_JJ Emma_NP1 &quot;_" ,_, try_VV0 to_TO work_VVI out_RP some_DD questions_NN2 to_TO ask_VVI ,_, such_II21 as_II22 ,_, &quot;_" Do_VD0 any_DD of_IO the_AT characters_NN2 in_II Emma_NP1 deliberately_RR use_VV0 irony_NN1 ?_? 
&quot;_" ;_; &quot;_" Which_DDQ characters_NN2 use_VV0 irony_NN1 ,_, and_CC which_DDQ do_VD0 n't_XX ?_? 
&quot;_" ;_; &quot;_" Is_VBZ there_EX a_AT1 distinction_NN1 between_II the_AT way_NN1 men_NN2 use_VV0 irony_NN1 and_CC women_NN2 use_VV0 irony_NN1 in_II Emma_NP1 ?_? &quot;_" ,_, etc_RA ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT main_JJ or_CC central_JJ question_NN1 that_CST I_PPIS1 wish_VV0 to_TO address_VVI ?_? 
A_AT1 collection_NN1 of_IO questions_NN2 will_VM not_XX necessarily_RR give_VVI you_PPY a_AT1 coherent_JJ focus_NN1 for_IF your_APPGE essay_NN1 ,_, so_CS you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO encapsulate_VVI as_RG many_DA2 as_CSA you_PPY can_VM in_II a_AT1 single_JJ basic_JJ question._NNU example_NN1 Which_DDQ types_NN2 of_IO characters_NN2 in_II Emma_NP1 use_NN1 irony_NN1 and_CC why_RRQ ?_? 
What_DDQ kinds_NN2 of_IO answers_NN2 am_RA I_PPIS1 looking_VVG for_IF ?_? 
Make_VV0 as_RG full_JJ a_AT1 list_NN1 as_CSA possible_JJ of_IO what_DDQ kinds_NN2 of_IO answer_NN1 would_VM be_VBI possible_JJ (_( to_II your_APPGE main_JJ question_NN1 and_CC also_RR to_II your_APPGE other_JJ questions_NN2 )_) ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY can_VM at_RR21 least_RR22 consider_VVI candidates_NN2 that_CST your_APPGE essay_NN1 may_VM then_RT reject._NNU example_NN1 The_AT question_NN1 &quot;_" Which_DDQ types_NN2 of_IO character_NN1 in_II Emma_NP1 use_NN1 irony_NN1 and_CC why_RRQ ?_? &quot;_" is_VBZ actually_RR two_MC questions_NN2 ._. 
Answering_VVG the_AT first_MD part_NN1 involves_VVZ classifying_VVG characters_NN2 into_II types_NN2 ,_, so_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ useful_JJ to_TO think_VVI of_IO all_DB types_NN2 which_DDQ might_VM be_VBI relevant_JJ in_II answering_VVG the_AT question_NN1 male_NN1 versus_II female_NN1 ,_, old_JJ versus_II young_JJ ,_, poor_JJ versus_II rich_JJ ,_, and_CC as_RG many_DA2 more_DAR as_II you_PPY can_VM think_VVI of_IO ._. 
Some_DD of_IO these_DD2 may_VM immediately_RR appear_VVI irrelevant_JJ ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO consider_VVI them_PPHO2 briefly_RR ,_, if_CS only_RR to_TO rule_VVI them_PPHO2 out_RP ._. 
Answering_VVG the_AT second_MD part_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" why_RRQ ?_? &quot;_" depends_VVZ on_II the_AT answer_NN1 to_II the_AT first_MD part_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ useful_JJ anyway_RR to_TO speculate_VVI about_II possible_JJ findings_NN2 and_CC so_RR some_DD possible_JJ explanations_NN2 ;_; the_AT characters_NN2 who_PNQS use_VV0 irony_NN1 might_VM be_VBI similar_JJ in_II type_NN1 to_II Austen_NP1 herself_PPX1 (_( in_II class_NN1 ,_, gender_NN1 ,_, age_NN1 )_) ;_; or_CC they_PPHS2 might_VM be_VBI the_AT characters_NN2 who_PNQS function_VV0 as_CSA heroes_NN2 and_CC heroines_NN2 in_II the_AT novels_NN2 ._. 
Each_DD1 of_IO these_DD2 answers_NN2 raises_VVZ further_JJR questions_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ exactly_RR how_RRQ you_PPY can_VM build_VVI your_APPGE essay_NN1 ,_, as_CSA a_AT1 sequence_NN1 of_IO questions_NN2 and_CC answers_NN2 ._. 
What_DDQ methods_NN2 will_VM help_VVI me_PPIO1 find_NN1 answers_VVZ ?_? 
Your_APPGE essay_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO provide_VVI evidence_NN1 or_CC reasons_NN2 for_IF your_APPGE point_NN1 of_IO view_NN1 ._. 
All_DB the_AT time_NNT1 you_PPY ought_VMK to_TO be_VBI asking_VVG yourself_PPX1 :_: &quot;_" why_RRQ should_VM anyone_PN1 believe_VVI what_DDQ I_PPIS1 am_VBM writing_VVG ?_? &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" what_DDQ have_VH0 I_PPIS1 noticed_VVN in_II the_AT text_NN1 or_CC in_II background_NN1 ,_, contextual_JJ materials_NN2 that_CST makes_VVZ me_PPIO1 think_VVI this_DD1 ?_? 
&quot;_" Even_CS21 if_CS22 your_APPGE reasoning_NN1 is_VBZ self-evident_JJ to_II you_PPY ,_, it_PPH1 wo_VM n't_XX be_VBI to_II other_JJ people_NN ,_, who_PNQS will_VM come_VVI at_II the_AT issue_NN1 from_II a_AT1 slightly_RR (_( or_CC very_JJ )_) different_JJ point_NN1 of_IO view._NNU example_NN1 How_RRQ can_VM you_PPY show_VVI your_APPGE reader_NN1 that_CST you_PPY have_VH0 made_VVN an_AT1 exhaustive_JJ survey_NN1 of_IO the_AT characters_NN2 in_II Emma_NP1 and_CC whether_CSW they_PPHS2 use_VV0 irony_NN1 or_CC not_XX ?_? 
Drawing_VVG up_RP a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO all_DB speaking_VVG characters_NN2 is_VBZ an_AT1 obvious_JJ start_NN1 ,_, with_IW a_AT1 note_NN1 of_IO pages_NN2 on_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 speak_VV0 ,_, and_CC to_II whom_PNQO ._. 
Putting_VVG all_DB this_DD1 into_II a_AT1 diagrammatic_JJ table_NN1 might_VM be_VBI a_AT1 good_JJ way_NN1 to_TO gather_VVI data_NN so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY can_VM see_VVI clearly_RR if_CS there_EX are_VBR generalisations_NN2 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM put_VVI the_AT table_NN1 into_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 ,_, if_CS the_AT information_NN1 turns_VVZ out_RP to_TO be_VBI significant_JJ ._. 
What_DDQ books_NN2 or_CC articles_NN2 do_VD0 I_PPIS1 already_RR know_VVI that_CST address_VV0 my_APPGE main_JJ question_NN1 ?_? 
Draw_VV0 up_RP a_AT1 list_NN1 ,_, look_VV0 on_II the_AT library_NN1 shelves_NN2 ,_, and_CC once_CS you_PPY have_VH0 the_AT books_NN2 in_II your_APPGE hands_NN2 ,_, consult_VV0 the_AT index_NN1 and_CC bibliography_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 for_IF further_JJR ideas_NN2 ._. 
How_RRQ can_VM I_PPIS1 draw_VVI boundaries_NN2 round_RP ,_, or_CC limit_VV0 the_AT scope_NN1 of_IO my_APPGE chosen_JJ field_NN1 ?_? 
Bear_VV0 in_II mind_NN1 that_CST background_NN1 material_NN1 expands_VVZ infinitely_RR ,_, and_CC needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI closed_VVN off_RP somewhere_RL to_TO prevent_VVI you_PPY becoming_VVG submerged_JJ in_II an_AT1 endless_JJ and_CC unfinishable_JJ project_NN1 ._. 
Take_VV0 note_NN1 ,_, in_II examinations_NN2 ,_, of_IO how_RRQ boundaries_NN2 are_VBR suggested_VVN in_II questions_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" with_II31 reference_II32 to_II33 at_RR21 least_RR22 two_MC works_NN &quot;_" ,_, or_CC &quot;_" with_II31 reference_II32 to_II33 works_NN by_II at_RR21 least_RR22 two_MC authors_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
With_IW larger_JJR projects_NN2 ,_, take_VV0 care_NN1 not_XX to_TO include_VVI everything_PN1 you_PPY are_VBR interested_JJ in_II ,_, just_RR to_TO bring_VVI it_PPH1 in_II somewhere._NNU example_NN1 Avoid_VV0 the_AT &quot;_" Jane_NP1 Austen_NP1 ,_, gender_NN1 ,_, class_NN1 ,_, early_RR nineteenth-century_JJ society_NN1 and_CC the_AT development_NN1 of_IO the_AT novel_JJ &quot;_" type_NN1 of_IO project_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ inevitably_RR lacks_VVZ a_AT1 clear_JJ focus_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II my_APPGE central_JJ question_NN1 and_CC current_JJ work_NN1 in_II this_DD1 subject_NN1 area_NN1 ?_? 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ that_CST the_AT question_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR asking_VVG is_VBZ different_JJ from_II the_AT sorts_NN2 of_IO discussion_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 encountered_VVN in_II what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 read_VVN on_II the_AT subject_NN1 ._. 
If_CS so_RR ,_, indicate_VV0 that_CST you_PPY recognise_VV0 this_DD1 ,_, if_CS possible_JJ with_IW an_AT1 explanation_NN1 of_IO how_RRQ ._. 
Or_CC it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI that_CST the_AT question_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR interested_JJ in_II has_VHZ been_VBN discussed_VVN before_RT ,_, but_CCB that_DD1 you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO develop_VVI it_PPH1 in_II a_AT1 particular_JJ way_NN1 ,_, or_CC to_TO extend_VVI it_PPH1 ,_, or_CC to_TO disagree_VVI with_IW one_MC1 of_IO its_APPGE premises_NN2 ._. 
Again_RT ,_, indicate_VV0 this_DD1 ,_, as_RG precisely_RR as_CSA possible_JJ ._. 
Establishing_VVG how_RRQ your_APPGE work_NN1 fits_VVZ into_II debate_NN1 in_II the_AT area_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 important_JJ function_NN1 of_IO essay-writing_NN1 in_II literary_JJ studies_NN2 ;_; generally_RR speaking_VVG ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO know_VVI why_RRQ and_CC how_RRQ your_APPGE work_NN1 matters._NNU example_NN1 For_IF the_AT Emma_NP1 essay_NN1 ,_, you_PPY could_VM look_VVI in_II a_AT1 bibliography_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 link_NN1 between_II &quot;_" irony_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" Austen_NP1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" characterisation_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; you_PPY could_VM scan_VVI some_DD collections_NN2 of_IO essays_NN2 on_II Austen_NP1 or_CC Emma_NP1 for_IF possibly_RR relevant_JJ material_NN1 ;_; similarly_RR you_PPY could_VM look_VVI in_II books_NN2 on_II irony_NN1 ,_, in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO see_VVI how_RGQ closely_RR your_APPGE ideas_NN2 resemble_VV0 existing_JJ material_NN1 ,_, and_CC what_DDQ aspects_NN2 are_VBR original_JJ ._. 
Am_VB0 I_PPIS1 sufficiently_RR interested_JJ in_II my_APPGE question_NN1 or_CC topic_NN1 to_TO keep_VVI me_PPIO1 interested_JJ over_II the_AT necessary_JJ time_NNT1 period_NN1 ?_? 
With_IW examination_NN1 questions_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 little_DA1 choice_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY also_RR have_VH0 only_RR a_AT1 little_JJ time_NNT1 ._. 
Some_DD pieces_NN2 of_IO work_NN1 ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, require_VV0 a_AT1 lot_NN1 of_IO reading_NN1 and_CC study_NN1 time_NNT1 during_II composition_NN1 ;_; and_CC for_IF these_DD2 you_PPY are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO produce_VVI better_JJR work_NN1 if_CS you_PPY choose_VV0 questions_NN2 that_CST genuinely_RR interest_VV0 you_PPY ,_, or_CC connect_VV0 with_IW problems_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR in_II any_DD case_NN1 interested_JJ in_II outside_RL your_APPGE literary_JJ work_NN1 ,_, rather_CS21 than_CS22 if_CS you_PPY feel_VV0 your_APPGE work_NN1 is_VBZ being_VBG done_VDN out_II21 of_II22 obligation_NN1 or_CC under_II duress_NN1 ._. 
Be_VB0 wary_JJ ,_, though_CS ,_, of_IO topics_NN2 involving_VVG issues_NN2 in_II which_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR personally_RR very_RG deeply_RR immersed_VVN ._. 
If_CS you_PPY feel_VV0 it_PPH1 will_VM be_VBI difficult_JJ to_TO stand_VVI back_RP sufficiently_RR to_TO carry_VVI out_RP the_AT sorts_NN2 of_IO procedures_NN2 we_PPIS2 have_VH0 discussed_VVN in_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 ,_, then_RT it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI best_JJT to_TO avoid_VVI them._NNU example_NN1 If_CS you_PPY have_VH0 a_AT1 general_JJ political_JJ interest_NN1 in_II social_JJ class_NN1 ,_, this_DD1 could_VM support_VVI an_AT1 investigation_NN1 of_IO class_NN1 as_CSA it_PPH1 relates_VVZ to_II characters_NN2 '_GE use_NN1 of_IO irony_NN1 in_II Emma_NP1 ._. 
What_DDQ kinds_NN2 of_IO benefits_NN2 personally_RR and_CC as_II a_AT1 student_NN1 are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO result_VVI from_II investigating_VVG my_APPGE chosen_JJ topic_NN1 ?_? 
Evaluate_VV0 what_DDQ contribution_NN1 the_AT project_NN1 can_VM make_VVI to_II your_APPGE grade_NN1 or_CC course_NN1 requirement_NN1 ,_, and_CC also_RR what_DDQ contribution_NN1 it_PPH1 can_VM make_VVI to_II your_APPGE thinking_NN1 or_CC personal_JJ growth._NNU 1.11_MC SUMMARY_NN1 ,_, SUGGESTIONS_NN2 AND_CC EXERCISES_VVZ Summary_NN1 In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 have_VH0 suggested_VVN that_CST how_RRQ you_PPY present_VV0 the_AT evidence_NN1 and_CC arguments_NN2 which_DDQ make_VV0 up_RP your_APPGE case_NN1 about_II a_AT1 problem_NN1 or_CC issue_NN1 is_VBZ at_RR21 least_RR22 as_CSA important_JJ in_II literary_JJ studies_NN2 as_II the_AT particular_JJ viewpoint_NN1 you_PPY adopt_VV0 ,_, and_CC counts_NN2 as_CSA originality_NN1 ._. 
Exam_NN1 and_CC essay_NN1 questions_NN2 come_VV0 in_II a_AT1 range_NN1 of_IO identifiable_JJ idioms_NN2 ,_, and_CC there_EX are_VBR established_VVN conventions_NN2 for_IF responding_VVG to_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
Essays_NN2 need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI constructed_VVN ,_, not_XX just_RR written_VVN ;_; so_RG time_NNT1 spent_VVN on_II an_AT1 initial_JJ outline_NN1 establishing_VVG an_AT1 essay_NN1 's_GE structure_NN1 prevents_VVZ problems_NN2 of_IO shape_NN1 and_CC proportion_NN1 when_CS the_AT essay_NN1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 is_VBZ written_VVN ._. 
Specific_JJ suggestions_NN2 *_FU If_CSW you_PPY are_VBR stuck_VVN for_IF a_AT1 topic_NN1 ,_, look_VV0 at_II our_APPGE description_NN1 of_IO the_AT range_NN1 of_IO possible_JJ points_NN2 of_IO focus_NN1 and_CC modes_NN2 of_IO argument_NN1 ,_, and_CC construct_VV0 your_APPGE essay_NN1 by_II choosing_VVG and_CC combining_VVG these_DD2 established_JJ idioms_NN2 (_( pp._NNU2 1112_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Make_VV0 sure_JJ you_PPY have_VH0 a_AT1 single_JJ basic_JJ question_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR trying_VVG to_TO answer_VVI (_( p._NNU 13_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Learn_VV0 the_AT &quot;_" language_NN1 &quot;_" of_IO examination_NN1 and_CC set_VV0 essay_NN1 questions_NN2 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY know_VV0 how_RRQ to_TO &quot;_" speak_VVI &quot;_" suitable_JJ answers_NN2 (_( pp._NNU2 1517_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Break_NN1 your_APPGE essay_NN1 into_II parts_NN2 ,_, in_II advance_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG it_PPH1 ,_, and_CC continuously_RR update_VV0 and_CC revise_VV0 your_APPGE description_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE structure_NN1 ._. 
Decide_VV0 what_DDQ proportion_NN1 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 each_DD1 part_NN1 requires_VVZ (_( pp._NNU2 18_MC ,_, 224_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Start_NN1 to_TO write_VVI immediately_RR ;_; use_VV0 writing_VVG as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO working_VVG out_RP what_DDQ you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO say_VVI (_( pp._NNU2 224_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Show_NN1 your_APPGE reader_NN1 clearly_RR the_AT structure_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 or_CC dissertation_NN1 (_( pp._NNU2 13_MC ,_, 17_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Indicate_VV0 clearly_RR which_DDQ aspects_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE work_NN1 are_VBR original_JJ and_CC which_DDQ are_VBR borrowed_VVN from_II already_RR published_VVN material_NN1 (_( pp._NNU2 201_MC )_) ._. 
See_VV0 also_RR pp._NNU2 258_MC for_IF a_AT1 checklist_NN1 for_IF getting_VVG started_VVN ._. 
Exercises_NN2 (_( 1_MC1 )_) Select_VV0 a_AT1 novel_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 just_RR read_VVN ._. 
Using_VVG our_APPGE description_NN1 above_RL (_( pp._NNU2 1112_MC )_) ,_, construct_VV0 a_AT1 brief_JJ summary_NN1 of_IO the_AT main_JJ points_NN2 which_DDQ would_VM make_VVI up_RP an_AT1 instance_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 of_IO the_AT following_JJ TYPES_NN2 of_IO argument_NN1 about_II the_AT book_NN1 :_: stylistic_JJ mode_NN1 (_( b_ZZ1 )_) contextual_JJ mode_NN1 (_( d_ZZ1 )_) evaluation_NN1 of_IO conflicting_JJ critical_JJ arguments_NN2 mode_NN1 (_( f_ZZ1 )_) Compare_VV0 your_APPGE three_MC summaries._NNU (_( 2_MC )_) Select_VV0 any_DD one_MC1 of_IO the_AT exam_NN1 questions_NN2 we_PPIS2 have_VH0 presented_VVN in_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 ._. 
Make_VV0 a_AT1 series_NN of_IO paragraph_NN1 or_CC section_NN1 headings_NN2 that_CST you_PPY could_VM use_VVI in_II a_AT1 one-hour_JJ exam_NN1 answer_NN1 ._. 
(_( You_PPY do_VD0 not_XX need_VVI to_TO know_VVI much_RR about_II the_AT topic_NN1 to_TO do_VDI this_DD1 ;_; you_PPY only_RR need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI able_JK to_TO identify_VVI what_DDQ you_PPY would_VM need_VVI to_TO know_VVI ._. )_) 
Bear_VV0 in_II mind_NN1 not_XX only_RR the_AT length_NN1 but_CCB also_RR the_AT proportion_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE answer_NN1 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 each_DD1 relevant_JJ issue_NN1 in_II the_AT question_NN1 is_VBZ addressed._NNU (_( 3_MC )_) Invent_VV0 a_AT1 title_NN1 in_II two_MC parts_NN2 (_( as_CSA in_II section_NN1 1.6_MC )_) ,_, making_VVG sure_JJ that_CST it_PPH1 indicates_VVZ your_APPGE attitude_NN1 to_II the_AT subject_NN1 matter_NN1 ._. 
Describe_VV0 (_( in_II a_AT1 short_JJ paragraph_NN1 )_) the_AT contents_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 essay_NN1 based_VVN around_II this_DD1 title_NN1 and_CC briefly_RR explain_VV0 how_RRQ the_AT title_NN1 captures_VVZ the_AT key_JJ idea(s)_NN2 of_IO the_AT essay._NNU (_( 4_MC )_) Invent_VV0 a_AT1 research_NN1 topic_NN1 (_( relate_VV0 it_PPH1 to_II one_MC1 of_IO the_AT subjects_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR studying_VVG ,_, if_CS you_PPY wish_VV0 )_) ,_, and_CC write_VV0 a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO specific_JJ questions_NN2 you_PPY could_VM ask_VVI about_II it_PPH1 ,_, grouped_VVN as_CSA in_II section_NN1 1.10_MC ._. 
Gathering_VVG your_APPGE materials_NN2 together_RL As_CSA we_PPIS2 suggested_VVD at_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO Chapter_NN1 1_MC1 ,_, when_CS you_PPY write_VV0 you_PPY use_VV0 inevitably_RR what_DDQ other_JJ people_NN have_VH0 written_VVN ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, in_II writing_VVG an_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II some_DD aspect_NN1 of_IO Emily_NP1 Dickinson_NP1 's_GE poetry_NN1 ,_, you_PPY might_VM use_VVI ,_, possibly_RR in_II order_NN1 of_IO likelihood_NN1 :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) some_DD poems_NN2 by_II Emily_NP1 Dickinson_NP1 ,_, which_DDQ you_PPY analyse_VV0 ;_; (_( b_ZZ1 )_) a_AT1 bibliography_NN1 (_( list_NN1 of_IO books_NN2 and_CC articles_NN2 )_) ,_, to_TO find_VVI out_RP what_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN written_VVN by_II and_CC on_II this_DD1 poet_NN1 ;_; (_( c_ZZ1 )_) one_MC1 or_CC more_DAR critical_JJ articles_NN2 on_II Emily_NP1 Dickinson_NP1 ;_; (_( d_ZZ1 )_) a_AT1 biography_NN1 of_IO the_AT writer_NN1 ;_; (_( e_ZZ1 )_) a_AT1 dictionary_NN1 of_IO symbolism_NN1 ,_, to_TO look_VVI up_RP some_DD of_IO the_AT symbols_NN2 she_PPHS1 uses_VVZ ;_; (_( f_ZZ1 )_) a_AT1 concordance_NN1 to_II the_AT works_NN of_IO Emily_NP1 Dickinson_NP1 (_( this_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO all_DB the_AT words_NN2 she_PPHS1 used_VVD ,_, and_CC where_RRQ she_PPHS1 used_VVD them_PPHO2 )_) ._. 
Each_DD1 of_IO these_DD2 sources_NN2 provides_VVZ new_JJ information_NN1 that_CST will_VM enrich_VVI the_AT ideas_NN2 you_PPY start_VV0 out_RP with_IW ;_; and_CC the_AT materials_NN2 you_PPY explore_VV0 will_VM also_RR provide_VVI a_AT1 springboard_NN1 into_II completely_RR new_JJ ideas_NN2 ,_, that_CST you_PPY are_VBR unlikely_JJ to_TO have_VHI simply_RR by_II contemplating_VVG the_AT poems_NN2 themselves_PPX2 ._. 
This_DD1 chapter_NN1 describes_VVZ some_DD of_IO the_AT sources_NN2 you_PPY might_VM need_VVI to_TO look_VVI at_II as_CSA you_PPY go_VV0 about_II your_APPGE study_NN1 ,_, how_RRQ to_TO find_VVI them_PPHO2 ,_, and_CC how_RRQ to_TO use_VVI them._NNU 2.1_MC HOW_RRQ TO_TO CHOOSE_VVI A_AT1 LITERARY_JJ TEXT_NN1 TO_TO WORK_VVI ON_RP We_PPIS2 can_VM begin_VVI by_II returning_VVG to_II the_AT question_NN1 of_IO defining_VVG your_APPGE essay_NN1 topic_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY choose_VV0 an_AT1 author_NN1 ;_; but_CCB then_RT you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO decide_VVI which_DDQ text_NN1 or_CC texts_NN2 to_TO work_VVI on_II (_( sometimes_RT which_DDQ parts_NN2 of_IO that_DD1 text_NN1 or_CC texts_NN2 )_) ,_, and_CC which_DDQ version_NN1 of_IO the_AT texts_NN2 to_TO choose_VVI ._. 
If_CS you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO talk_VVI about_II the_AT work_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 author_NN1 ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO judge_VVI how_RGQ many_DA2 texts_NN2 to_TO talk_VVI about_II and_CC how_RRQ varied_VVD your_APPGE selection_NN1 needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI (_( many_DA2 authors_NN2 write_VV0 in_II different_JJ modes_NN2 :_: novels_NN2 ,_, short_JJ stories_NN2 ,_, poems_NN2 ,_, diaries_NN2 and_CC letters_NN2 ,_, etc_RA )_) ._. 
Other_JJ choices_NN2 include_VV0 :_: should_VM you_PPY pick_VVI well-known_JJ texts_NN2 or_CC little-known_JJ texts_NN2 ?_? 
Should_VM you_PPY choose_VVI texts_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR central_JJ to_II established_JJ literary_JJ traditions_NN2 (_( canonised_VVN texts_NN2 )_) or_CC texts_NN2 by_II marginalised_JJ writers_NN2 ?_? 
The_AT important_JJ element_NN1 here_RL is_VBZ the_AT sense_NN1 of_IO choice_NN1 and_CC decision_NN1 :_: the_AT materials_NN2 you_PPY choose_VV0 actively_RR shape_VV0 the_AT essay_NN1 you_PPY produce_VV0 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR not_XX simply_RR background_NN1 materials_NN2 for_IF your_APPGE preparation_NN1 ,_, but_CCB guide_VV0 what_DDQ sort_NN1 of_IO essay_NN1 will_VM result_VVI ._. 
In_II some_DD cases_NN2 choice_NN1 is_VBZ governed_VVN by_II teachers_NN2 or_CC by_II the_AT exam_NN1 paper_NN1 ._. 
In_II other_JJ cases_NN2 it_PPH1 is_VBZ shaped_VVN by_II personal_JJ preference_NN1 (_( e.g._REX you_PPY already_RR feel_VV0 that_CST you_PPY have_VH0 something_PN1 specific_JJ to_TO say_VVI on_II a_AT1 particular_JJ work_NN1 )_) ._. 
In_II other_JJ cases_NN2 again_RT ,_, your_APPGE selection_NN1 is_VBZ based_VVN on_II an_AT1 informal_JJ research_NN1 procedure_NN1 :_: you_PPY choose_VV0 works_NN you_PPY consider_VV0 representative_NN1 in_II some_DD respect_NN1 (_( e.g._REX genre_NN1 ,_, length_NN1 ,_, typicality_NN1 of_IO theme_NN1 )_) ;_; or_CC well-known_JJ works_NN (_( which_DDQ you_PPY think_VV0 need_VV0 fresh_JJ attention_NN1 )_) ;_; or_CC little-known_JJ or_CC neglected_VVD ,_, &quot;_" minor_JJ &quot;_" works_NN (_( which_DDQ need_VV0 discovery_NN1 or_CC rehabilitation_NN1 )_) ._. 
At_II this_DD1 stage_NN1 the_AT most_RGT important_JJ consideration_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST your_APPGE choice_NN1 is_VBZ consistent_JJ with_IW the_AT overall_JJ purpose_NN1 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 topic_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR proposing_VVG ._. 
Once_CS you_PPY have_VH0 chosen_VVN your_APPGE texts_NN2 (_( or_CC had_VHD them_PPHO2 chosen_VVN for_IF you_PPY )_) ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO decide_VVI how_RRQ to_TO focus_VVI on_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
No_RGQV31 matter_RGQV32 how_RGQV33 familiar_JJ with_IW literary_JJ works_NN you_PPY become_VV0 ,_, you_PPY can_VM not_XX focus_VVI equally_RR on_II all_DB parts_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 (_( particularly_RR a_AT1 long_JJ text_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 a_AT1 novel_NN1 )_) :_: so_CS you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO decide_VVI which_DDQ parts_NN2 of_IO it_PPH1 are_VBR most_RRT worth_II reading_VVG closely_RR and_CC writing_VVG about_II ._. 
This_DD1 varies_VVZ from_II novel_NN1 to_II novel_NN1 ;_; but_CCB as_II a_AT1 general_JJ guideline_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ usually_RR worth_II paying_VVG particular_JJ attention_NN1 to_II the_AT beginning_NN1 and_CC ending_NN1 (_( where_CS structural_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT novel_NN1 are_VBR often_RR signalled_VVN most_RGT clearly_RR )_) ._. 
With_IW a_AT1 poem_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ worth_II spending_VVG time_NNT1 thinking_VVG about_II why_RRQ it_PPH1 has_VHZ the_AT title_NN1 it_PPH1 has_VHZ ._. 
Beginnings_NN2 ,_, endings_NN2 and_CC titles_NN2 are_VBR sections_NN2 of_IO texts_NN2 which_DDQ usually_RR repay_VV0 particular_JJ study_NN1 ._. 
Do_VD0 you_PPY need_VVI to_TO worry_VVI about_II which_DDQ version_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 to_TO use_VVI ?_? 
One_MC1 context_NN1 in_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 makes_VVZ a_AT1 difference_NN1 is_VBZ when_RRQ you_PPY refer_VV0 to_II a_AT1 text_NN1 by_II page_NN1 or_CC line_NN1 number_NN1 ;_; different_JJ versions_NN2 are_VBR often_RR different_JJ in_II this_DD1 respect_NN1 ,_, so_CS the_AT least_RGT you_PPY should_VM do_VDI is_VBZ tell_VVI your_APPGE reader_NN1 which_DDQ edition_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR referring_VVG to_II (_( which_DDQ publisher_NN1 ,_, editor_NN1 ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) ._. 
You_PPY might_VM also_RR try_VVI to_TO use_VVI an_AT1 edition_NN1 which_DDQ your_APPGE reader_NN1 can_VM independently_RR get_VVI hold_NN1 of_IO ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 she_PPHS1 or_CC he_PPHS1 can_VM check_VVI what_DDQ you_PPY say_VV0 ._. 
The_AT other_JJ reason_NN1 for_IF worrying_VVG about_II which_DDQ version_NN1 you_PPY should_VM use_VVI relates_VVZ to_II AUTHENTICITY_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD versions_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 convey_VV0 better_RRR than_CSN others_NN2 what_DDQ the_AT author_NN1 originally_RR wrote_VVD ._. 
Even_RR the_AT first_MD printed_JJ edition_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 may_VM have_VHI been_VBN altered_VVN by_II an_AT1 editor_NN1 ,_, printer_NN1 or_CC typesetter_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, in_II its_APPGE first_MD printed_JJ version_NN1 Shakespeare_NP1 's_GE Henry_NP1 V_ZZ1 has_VHZ a_AT1 line_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC a_AT1 table_NN1 of_IO green_JJ fields_NN2 &quot;_" ,_, which_DDQ modern_JJ editors_NN2 now_RT think_VV0 should_VM probably_RR have_VHI been_VBN &quot;_" and_CC he_PPHS1 babbled_VVD of_IO green_JJ fields_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
Bowdler_NP1 's_GE 1818_MC edition_NN1 of_IO Shakespeare_NP1 cut_VVD out_RP parts_NN2 &quot;_" unsuitable_JJ for_IF ladies_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
Amos_NP1 Tutuola_NP1 's_GE (_( Nigerian_NN1 )_) novel_NN1 The_AT Palm_NN1 Wine_NN1 Drinkard_NP1 had_VHD its_APPGE idiosyncratic_JJ English_NN1 modified_VVN by_II its_APPGE British_JJ publisher_NN1 ,_, Faber_NP1 and_CC Faber_NP1 ._. 
Modern_JJ critical_JJ editions_NN2 sometimes_RT also_RR make_VV0 changes_NN2 which_DDQ go_VV0 against_II authorial_JJ intentions_NN2 ;_; Keynes_NP1 's_GE Oxford_NP1 edition_NN1 of_IO Blake_NP1 's_GE poems_NN2 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, changes_VVZ Blake_NP1 's_VBZ invented_VVN punctuation_NN1 system_NN1 to_TO make_VVI it_PPH1 fit_JJ with_IW standard_JJ rules_NN2 of_IO punctuation_NN1 ._. 
Each_DD1 of_IO these_DD2 versions_NN2 has_VHZ its_APPGE own_DA authenticity_NN1 ;_; and_CC editorial_JJ decisions_NN2 are_VBR interesting_JJ in_II their_APPGE own_DA right_NN1 (_( and_CC merit_VV0 investigation_NN1 )_) for_IF what_DDQ they_PPHS2 tell_VV0 us_PPIO2 about_II the_AT times_NNT2 when_RRQ they_PPHS2 were_VBDR made_VVN (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT Tutuola_NP1 revisions_NN2 tell_VV0 us_PPIO2 about_II British_JJ attitudes_NN2 during_II the_AT 1960s_MC2 to_II the_AT English_NN1 of_IO non-native_JJ speakers_NN2 )_) ._. 
Usually_RR ,_, however_RR ,_, you_PPY will_VM be_VBI concerned_JJ with_IW getting_VVG as_RG close_JJ as_CSA possible_JJ to_II what_DDQ the_AT author_NN1 of_IO the_AT text_NN1 (_( not_XX a_AT1 later_JJR editor_NN1 or_CC printer_NN1 )_) wanted_VVD it_PPH1 to_TO be_VBI ._. 
This_DD1 means_VVZ that_CST you_PPY should_VM be_VBI aware_JJ of_IO different_JJ possible_JJ editions_NN2 of_IO the_AT text_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ useful_JJ to_TO distinguish_VVI between_II an_AT1 original_JJ edition_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 popular_JJ reprint_NN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 critical_JJ edition_NN1 ._. 
The_AT original_JJ edition_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT text_NN1 as_CSA it_PPH1 was_VBDZ first_MD printed_JJ ;_; most_DAT contemporary_JJ novels_NN2 for_REX21 example_REX22 exist_VV0 only_RR in_II original_JJ editions_NN2 ._. 
Older_JJR texts_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, may_VM exist_VVI also_RR in_II critical_JJ editions_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 CRITICAL_JJ EDITION_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 named_JJ editor_NN1 ,_, who_PNQS tries_VVZ to_TO make_VVI the_AT text_NN1 the_AT best_JJT possible_JJ version_NN1 ,_, and_CC will_VM usually_RR include_VVI footnotes_NN2 or_CC appendices_NN2 explaining_VVG decisions_NN2 taken_VVN about_II words_NN2 in_II the_AT text_NN1 ._. 
Critical_JJ editions_NN2 are_VBR often_RR more_RGR reliable_JJ versions_NN2 of_IO the_AT text_NN1 than_CSN original_JJ editions_NN2 ,_, since_CS they_PPHS2 will_VM correct_VVI accidental_JJ errors_NN2 or_CC random_JJ editorial_JJ decisions_NN2 in_II the_AT original_JJ editions_NN2 ._. 
Older_JJR texts_NN2 are_VBR also_RR reprinted_VVN in_II POPULAR_JJ EDITIONS_NN2 (_( popular_JJ =_FO for_IF ordinary_JJ people_NN ,_, generally_RR for_IF non-academic_JJ purposes_NN2 ,_, though_CS in_II practice_NN1 often_RR the_AT editions_NN2 used_VVN on_II courses_NN2 )_) ._. 
A_AT1 popular_JJ edition_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 version_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 intended_VVN for_IF the_AT general_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 the_AT academic_JJ reader_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM tell_VVI whether_CSW a_AT1 text_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 is_VBZ a_AT1 critical_JJ or_CC a_AT1 popular_JJ edition_NN1 by_II looking_VVG at_II the_AT following_JJ features_NN2 :_: Does_VDZ it_PPH1 have_VHI a_AT1 note_NN1 on_II the_AT text_NN1 ,_, explaining_VVG spelling_NN1 conventions_NN2 used_VVD ,_, etc._RA ?_? 
Does_VDZ it_PPH1 have_VHI an_AT1 introduction_NN1 by_II an_AT1 editor_NN1 ?_? 
Does_VDZ it_PPH1 have_VHI footnotes_NN2 or_CC endnotes_NN2 ?_? 
Is_VBZ it_PPH1 a_AT1 numbered_JJ part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 multi-volume_JJ edition_NN1 ?_? 
If_CS the_AT answer_NN1 to_II these_DD2 questions_NN2 is_VBZ &quot;_" yes_UH &quot;_" ,_, you_PPY have_VH0 a_AT1 critical_JJ edition_NN1 ._. 
Sometimes_RT a_AT1 popular_JJ edition_NN1 will_VM be_VBI based_VVN on_II a_AT1 critical_JJ edition_NN1 ,_, making_VVG it_PPH1 appropriate_VVI for_IF most_DAT uses_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY should_VM avoid_VVI illustrated_JJ &quot;_" coffee_NN1 table_NN1 &quot;_" versions_NN2 or_CC simplified_VVD rewritten_VVN editions_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 intended_VVN for_IF EFL_NN1 students_NN2 or_CC children_NN2 ._. 
You_PPY are_VBR unlikely_JJ always_RR to_TO have_VHI access_NN1 to_II an_AT1 authoritative_JJ edition_NN1 ._. 
The_AT next_MD best_JJT thing_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO show_VVI that_CST you_PPY are_VBR aware_JJ of_IO the_AT issues_NN2 that_CST surround_VV0 a_AT1 choice_NN1 of_IO text_NN1 (_( some_DD of_IO these_DD2 will_VM probably_RR be_VBI explained_VVN in_II the_AT introductory_JJ &quot;_" Note_NN1 on_II the_AT Text_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
If_CS you_PPY read_VV0 with_IW such_DA issues_NN2 in_II mind_NN1 and_CC how_RRQ they_PPHS2 actively_RR affect_VV0 what_DDQ sense_VV0 you_PPY can_VM make_VVI of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 introductory_JJ notes_NN2 often_RR become_VV0 relevant_JJ and_CC interesting_JJ in_II unexpected_JJ ways._NNU 2.2_MC HOW_RRQ TO_TO CHOOSE_VVI CRITICAL_JJ ANALYSES_NN2 TO_TO WORK_VVI WITH_IW Much_DA1 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY will_VM need_VVI for_IF your_APPGE study_NN1 will_VM be_VBI in_II the_AT literary_JJ texts_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 chosen_VVN especially_RR if_CS you_PPY are_VBR reading_VVG annotated_JJ critical_JJ editions_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY will_VM probably_RR also_RR want_VVI to_TO consult_VVI critical_JJ analyses_NN2 of_IO those_DD2 works_NN ,_, for_IF a_AT1 range_NN1 of_IO possible_JJ reasons_NN2 ._. 
Perhaps_RR the_AT major_JJ problem_NN1 in_II choosing_VVG critical_JJ texts_NN2 to_TO read_VVI and_CC refer_VVI to_II is_VBZ whether_CSW31 or_CSW32 not_CSW33 to_TO use_VVI specialised_JJ student_NN1 textbooks_NN2 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 distinction_NN1 in_II principle_NN1 between_II a_AT1 book_NN1 which_DDQ sets_VVZ out_RP original_JJ ideas_NN2 ,_, and_CC justifies_VVZ them_PPHO2 (_( a_AT1 MONOGRAPH_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC a_AT1 book_NN1 whose_DDQGE primary_JJ function_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO distil_VVI and_CC tell_VVI you_PPY what_DDQ other_JJ people_NN 's_GE ideas_NN2 are_VBR (_( a_AT1 TEXTBOOK_NN1 )_) ._. 
Textbooks_NN2 may_VM of_RR21 course_RR22 also_RR include_VVI original_JJ ideas_NN2 ,_, so_CS the_AT distinction_NN1 becomes_VVZ blurred_VVN (_( especially_RR where_CS a_AT1 textbook_NN1 does_VDZ n't_XX tell_VVI you_PPY where_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ offering_VVG contentious_JJ interpretations_NN2 )_) ._. 
But_CCB developing_VVG entirely_RR new_JJ arguments_NN2 is_VBZ not_XX usually_RR a_AT1 textbook_NN1 's_GE main_JJ function_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 formulation_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 original_JJ idea_NN1 (_( e.g._REX in_II a_AT1 monograph_NN1 )_) is_VBZ a_AT1 PRIMARY_JJ SOURCE_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 idea_NN1 ;_; its_APPGE repetition_NN1 or_CC paraphrase_VV0 in_II a_AT1 textbook_NN1 (_( or_CC in_II another_DD1 monograph_NN1 )_) is_VBZ a_AT1 SECONDARY_JJ SOURCE_NN1 of_IO it_PPH1 ._. 
One_MC1 advantage_NN1 of_IO secondary_JJ sources_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST they_PPHS2 are_VBR often_RR easy_JJ to_TO understand_VVI ;_; but_CCB a_AT1 problem_NN1 which_DDQ can_VM arise_VVI is_VBZ that_CST they_PPHS2 may_VM have_VHI altered_VVN or_CC distorted_VVD the_AT original_JJ idea_NN1 ._. 
For_IF this_DD1 reason_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ better_JJR to_TO refer_VVI at_II some_DD stage_NN1 to_II the_AT primary_JJ source_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 idea_NN1 ,_, even_CS21 if_CS22 you_PPY came_VVD across_II it_PPH1 first_MD in_II a_AT1 secondary_JJ source_NN1 ._. 
Textbooks_NN2 are_VBR useful_JJ (_( particularly_RR for_IF telling_VVG you_PPY which_DDQ primary_JJ sources_NN2 to_TO look_VVI for_IF )_) ,_, but_CCB you_PPY should_VM not_XX have_VHI to_TO refer_VVI to_II them_PPHO2 very_RG often_RR in_II writing_VVG your_APPGE final_JJ essay_NN1 or_CC dissertation_NN1 ._. 
Quoting_VVG extensively_RR from_II a_AT1 textbook_NN1 in_II a_AT1 PhD_NN1 thesis_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 (_( especially_RR if_CS you_PPY treat_VV0 it_PPH1 as_II an_AT1 authority_NN1 rather_CS21 than_CS22 as_CSA something_PN1 for_IF critical_JJ comment_NN1 )_) is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO give_VVI the_AT wrong_JJ impression_NN1 :_: that_CST you_PPY are_VBR a_AT1 beginner_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 an_AT1 expert_NN1 in_II your_APPGE subject_NN1 ._. 
Think_VV0 about_II what_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR looking_VVG for_IF when_RRQ you_PPY consult_VV0 a_AT1 textbook_NN1 ._. 
Are_VBR you_PPY seeking_VVG :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) background_NN1 factual_JJ information_NN1 ?_? (_( b_ZZ1 )_) other_JJ people_NN 's_GE interpretations_NN2 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR reading_VVG ?_? (_( c_ZZ1 )_) accepted_JJ areas_NN2 for_IF debate_NN1 (_( to_II narrow_JJ down_II what_DDQ you_PPY think_VV0 you_PPY should_VM say_VVI ,_, because_II21 of_II22 what_DDQ other_JJ people_NN have_VH0 chosen_VVN to_TO talk_VVI about_II )_) ?_? 
Your_APPGE use_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 sources_NN2 needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI guided_VVN by_II a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO purpose_NN1 in_II your_APPGE search_NN1 ,_, as_RG well_RR as_CSA by_II the_AT interest_NN1 and_CC pleasure_NN1 of_IO browsing_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT next_MD section_NN1 we_PPIS2 consider_VV0 some_DD sources_NN2 of_IO information_NN1 ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 explore_VV0 why_RRQ and_CC how_RRQ sources_NN2 can_VM be_VBI useful_JJ in_II your_APPGE work_NN1 ._. 
Our_APPGE purpose_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX to_TO define_VVI a_AT1 basic_JJ library_NN1 for_IF you_PPY ,_, but_CCB rather_RR to_TO suggest_VVI kinds_NN2 of_IO books_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY might_VM look_VVI for_IF ;_; and_CC our_APPGE choice_NN1 of_IO texts_NN2 is_VBZ based_VVN primarily_RR on_II their_APPGE convenience_NN1 as_CSA illustrations._NNU 2.3_MC BOOKS_NN2 WHICH_DDQ LIST_VV0 FACTS_NN2 (_( DICTIONARIES_NN2 ,_, ETC_RA ._. )_) ,_, 
AND_CC HOW_RRQ TO_TO USE_VVI THEM_PPHO2 IN_II YOUR_APPGE RESEARCH_NN1 In_II most_DAT literary_JJ essays_NN2 your_APPGE central_JJ concern_NN1 will_VM be_VBI to_TO say_VVI something_PN1 about_II a_AT1 text_NN1 ;_; and_CC most_DAT of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY need_VV0 will_VM be_VBI there_RL ,_, in_II the_AT text_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
Since_CS the_AT text_NN1 provides_VVZ you_PPY with_IW so_RG much_DA1 material_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 may_VM not_XX be_VBI obvious_JJ why_RRQ dictionaries_NN2 ,_, encyclopedias_NN2 and_CC other_JJ books_NN2 in_II the_AT reference_NN1 section_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE library_NN1 can_VM be_VBI useful_JJ to_II you_PPY ._. 
In_II this_DD1 section_NN1 we_PPIS2 explain_VV0 why_RRQ they_PPHS2 can_VM ,_, and_CC list_VV0 some_DD of_IO the_AT information_NN1 sources_NN2 you_PPY might_VM want_VVI to_TO use_VVI ._. 
In_II all_DB cases_NN2 ,_, remember_VV0 that_CST the_AT information_NN1 you_PPY find_VV0 is_VBZ interesting_JJ or_CC valuable_JJ only_RR to_II the_AT extent_NN1 that_CST you_PPY can_VM put_VVI it_PPH1 to_II relevant_JJ use_NN1 in_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 ;_; facts_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX come_VVI with_IW fixed_JJ ,_, off-the-peg_JJ significance_NN1 ._. 
The_AT most_RGT obvious_JJ example_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 information_NN1 source_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 dictionary_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ tells_VVZ you_PPY what_DDQ words_NN2 mean_VV0 ._. 
Remember_VV0 that_CST what_DDQ you_PPY think_VV0 a_AT1 word_NN1 means_NN is_VBZ not_XX necessarily_RR what_DDQ it_PPH1 meant_VVD for_IF the_AT writer_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 may_VM have_VHI had_VHN a_AT1 different_JJ meaning_NN1 in_II a_AT1 different_JJ place_NN1 (_( e.g._REX &quot;_" cot_NN1 &quot;_" means_VVZ a_AT1 child_NN1 's_GE bed_NN1 in_II British_JJ English_NN1 ,_, but_CCB also_RR a_AT1 bed_NN1 for_IF adults_NN2 in_II Indian_JJ English_NN1 )_) ,_, or_CC at_II a_AT1 different_JJ time_NNT1 (_( e.g._REX &quot;_" gentle_JJ &quot;_" used_VMK to_TO carry_VVI the_AT meaning_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" upper_JJ class_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, as_CSA in_II &quot;_" gentry_NN &quot;_" ,_, but_CCB which_DDQ now_RT can_VM be_VBI used_VVN as_II an_AT1 approving_JJ description_NN1 something_PN1 like_II &quot;_" sensitive_JJ &quot;_" of_IO anyone_PN1 's_GE character_NN1 )_) ._. 
Because_CS words_NN2 change_VV0 in_II meaning_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI particularly_RR useful_JJ to_TO use_VVI a_AT1 historical_JJ dictionary_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 the_AT Oxford_NP1 English_JJ Dictionary_NN1 (_( OED_NP1 existing_JJ as_II a_AT1 multi-volume_JJ set_NN1 ,_, or_CC photographically_RR reduced_VVN ,_, or_CC on_II CD-rom_NN1 )_) ._. 
The_AT full_JJ version_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 dictionary_NN1 lists_VVZ all_DB the_AT meanings_NN2 a_AT1 word_NN1 has_VHZ had_VHN ,_, with_IW quotations_NN2 to_TO illustrate_VVI them_PPHO2 ._. 
Other_JJ dictionaries_NN2 contain_VV0 lists_NN2 of_IO words_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 special_JJ meanings_NN2 in_II literary_JJ criticism_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 The_AT Princeton_NP1 Encyclopedia_NP1 of_IO Poetry_NN1 and_CC Poetics_NN2 or_CC A_ZZ1 Handlist_NN1 of_IO Rhetorical_JJ Terms_NN2 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY are_VBR writing_VVG about_II a_AT1 twentieth-century_JJ author_NN1 and_CC you_PPY want_VV0 ideas_NN2 about_II the_AT author_NN1 or_CC what_DDQ to_TO say_VVI about_II her_PPHO1 or_CC him_PPHO1 ,_, you_PPY can_VM use_VVI the_AT massive_JJ reference_NN1 work_NN1 published_VVN by_II Gale_NP1 ,_, Contemporary_JJ Authors_NN2 (_( which_DDQ lists_VVZ biographical_JJ and_CC bibliographical_JJ information_NN1 ,_, together_RL with_IW other_JJ relevant_JJ comments_NN2 )_) and_CC Contemporary_JJ Literary_JJ Criticism_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ described_VVN as_II &quot;_" excerpts_NN2 from_II criticism_NN1 of_IO the_AT works_NN of_IO today_RT 's_GE novelists_NN2 ,_, poets_NN2 ,_, playwrights_NN2 and_CC other_JJ creative_JJ writers_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
Some_DD authors_NN2 will_VM be_VBI less_RGR well-documented_JJ in_II traditional_JJ information_NN1 sources_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 these_DD2 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 pre-twentieth-century_JJ women_NN2 authors_NN2 ;_; and_CC here_RL you_PPY may_VM find_VVI it_PPH1 useful_JJ to_TO use_VVI the_AT Dictionary_NN1 of_IO British_JJ Women_NN2 Writers_NN2 ._. 
On_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, better_RRR known_VVN authors_NN2 may_VM have_VHI specialised_VVN sources_NN2 of_IO information_NN1 associated_VVN with_IW them_PPHO2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 A_ZZ1 D.H._NP1 Lawrence_NP1 Handbook_NN1 ._. 
And_CC some_DD authors_NN2 have_VH0 concordances_NN2 devoted_VVN to_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
A_AT1 CONCORDANCE_NN1 ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 said_VVN ,_, is_VBZ a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO all_DB the_AT words_NN2 used_VVN by_II a_AT1 particular_JJ author_NN1 ,_, with_IW an_AT1 indication_NN1 of_IO where_RRQ those_DD2 words_NN2 are_VBR used_VVN ._. 
You_PPY can_VM use_VVI it_PPH1 to_TO find_VVI a_AT1 particular_JJ place_NN1 in_II a_AT1 text_NN1 if_CS you_PPY know_VV0 a_AT1 word_NN1 used_VVD there_RL ,_, or_CC as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO following_VVG up_RP a_AT1 particular_JJ theme_NN1 ,_, metaphor_NN1 or_CC symbol_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, if_CS you_PPY look_VV0 up_RP the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" wit_NN1 &quot;_" in_II a_AT1 Concordance_NN1 to_II Congreve_NP1 ,_, you_PPY will_VM find_VVI all_DB the_AT places_NN2 where_RRQ the_AT seventeenth-century_JJ dramatist_NN1 Congreve_NN1 used_VVD that_DD1 word_NN1 ;_; you_PPY can_VM then_RT work_VVI out_RP what_DDQ its_APPGE particular_JJ meaning_NN1 for_IF Congreve_NN1 must_VM have_VHI been_VBN by_II studying_VVG how_RRQ he_PPHS1 uses_VVZ it_PPH1 ._. 
Sometimes_RT you_PPY have_VH0 access_NN1 to_II a_AT1 text_NN1 ,_, but_CCB not_XX to_II all_DB the_AT information_NN1 you_PPY would_VM like_VVI about_II it_PPH1 ._. 
You_PPY may_VM have_VHI seen_VVN a_AT1 film_NN1 ,_, but_CCB wish_VV0 to_TO talk_VVI about_II who_PNQS did_VDD the_AT cinematography_NN1 or_CC who_PNQS played_VVD a_AT1 particular_JJ character_NN1 ._. 
Once_CS the_AT film_NN1 credits_NN2 are_VBR over_RP ,_, you_PPY have_VH0 no_AT permanent_JJ record_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 case_NN1 you_PPY might_VM use_VVI a_AT1 popular_JJ reference_NN1 work_NN1 like_II Halliwell_NP1 's_GE Film_NN1 Guide_NN1 ,_, or_CC a_AT1 journal_NN1 like_II The_AT Monthly_JJ Film_NN1 Bulletin_NN1 or_CC Sight_NN1 and_CC Sound_NN1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR also_RR more_RGR specialised_JJ information_NN1 sources_NN2 you_PPY might_VM need_VVI to_TO use_VVI :_: if_CS you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO know_VVI about_II the_AT readership_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 particular_JJ contemporary_JJ magazine_NN1 or_CC newspaper_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 (_( perhaps_RR as_II part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 study_NN1 of_IO the_AT relation_NN1 between_II ideology_NN1 and_CC audience_NN1 )_) you_PPY could_VM use_VVI BRAD_NP1 (_( &quot;_" British_JJ Rate_NN1 and_CC Data_NN &quot;_" )_) ,_, which_DDQ lists_VVZ advertising_NN1 rates_NN2 and_CC audited_JJ newspaper_NN1 and_CC magazine_NN1 circulations_NN2 ._. 
Sometimes_RT historical_JJ information_NN1 is_VBZ useful_JJ ._. 
If_CS you_PPY are_VBR working_VVG on_II a_AT1 twentieth-century_JJ subject_NN1 ,_, you_PPY may_VM find_VVI it_PPH1 helpful_JJ to_TO use_VVI the_AT enormous_JJ amount_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 available_JJ about_II events_NN2 in_II the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, organised_VVN by_II year_NNT1 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY are_VBR writing_VVG about_II Eliot_NP1 's_GE poem_NN1 The_AT Waste_NN1 Land_NN1 (_( published_VVN in_II 1922_MC )_) for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, you_PPY might_VM consider_VVI it_PPH1 relevant_JJ to_TO know_VVI about_II other_JJ events_NN2 of_IO that_DD1 year_NNT1 (_( or_CC the_AT years_NNT2 when_CS it_PPH1 was_VBDZ being_VBG written_VVN )_) ,_, and_CC so_CS you_PPY could_VM look_VVI up_RP 1922_MC in_II the_AT index_NN1 to_II the_AT London_NP1 newspaper_NN1 The_AT Times_NNT2 (_( the_AT poem_NN1 is_VBZ set_VVN partly_RR in_II London_NP1 and_CC was_VBDZ published_VVN there_RL )_) ._. 
In_II these_DD2 indexes_NN2 you_PPY will_VM find_VVI information_NN1 about_II countries_NN2 ,_, types_NN2 of_IO event_NN1 (_( e.g._REX crimes_NN2 )_) ,_, about_II the_AT arts_NN2 (_( e.g._REX reviews_NN2 )_) and_CC about_II the_AT subjects_NN2 and_CC terms_NN2 of_IO reference_NN1 of_IO contemporaneous_JJ public_JJ debate_NN1 ._. 
As_II31 well_II32 as_II33 indexes_NN2 for_IF many_DA2 newspapers_NN2 ,_, there_EX are_VBR compendia_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 Keesings_NP1 Contemporary_JJ Archives_NN2 (_( &quot;_" factual_JJ reports_NN2 on_II current_JJ affairs_NN2 throughout_II the_AT world_NN1 ,_, based_VVN on_II information_NN1 abstracted_VVN from_II press_NN1 ,_, broadcasting_NN1 ,_, official_JJ and_CC other_JJ sources_NN2 &quot;_" ,_, published_VVN from_II 1931_MC onwards_RL )_) ._. 
Sometimes_RT a_AT1 novel_NN1 or_CC poem_NN1 gains_VVZ some_DD of_IO its_APPGE meaning_NN1 by_II quoting_VVG or_CC referring_VVG to_II another_DD1 text_NN1 ._. 
In_II these_DD2 cases_NN2 ,_, writers_NN2 may_VM expect_VVI their_APPGE readers_NN2 instantly_RR to_TO recognise_VVI such_DA ALLUSIONS_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB there_EX are_VBR changes_NN2 in_II what_DDQ readers_NN2 know_VV0 automatically_RR ,_, even_RR leaving_VVG aside_RL questions_NN2 of_IO education_NN1 ,_, social_JJ background_NN1 ,_, gender_NN1 ,_, ethnicity_NN1 or_CC age_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 person_NN1 in_II 1990_MC will_VM have_VHI a_AT1 different_JJ store_NN1 of_IO knowledge_NN1 from_II a_AT1 person_NN1 in_II 1890_MC ,_, and_CC even_RR more_RGR different_JJ from_II a_AT1 person_NN1 in_II 1790_MC ._. 
So_RR information_NN1 sources_NN2 can_VM stand_VVI in_RP for_IF what_DDQ we_PPIS2 do_VD0 not_XX automatically_RR know_VVI ._. 
If_CS you_PPY suspect_VV0 a_AT1 text_NN1 is_VBZ quoting_VVG another_DD1 text_NN1 ,_, you_PPY can_VM check_VVI by_II looking_VVG up_RP what_DDQ you_PPY take_VV0 to_TO be_VBI the_AT key_JJ word_NN1 of_IO the_AT quotation_NN1 in_II a_AT1 Dictionary_NN1 of_IO Quotations_NN2 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY think_VV0 an_AT1 allusion_NN1 is_VBZ being_VBG made_VVN to_II a_AT1 Greek_NN1 or_CC Roman_JJ myth_NN1 ,_, you_PPY can_VM try_VVI Lemprie_NP1 's_GE Classical_JJ Dictionary_NN1 or_CC some_DD other_JJ dictionary_NN1 of_IO Classical_JJ mythology_NN1 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY think_VV0 a_AT1 reference_NN1 is_VBZ being_VBG made_VVN to_II the_AT Bible_NN1 ,_, you_PPY can_VM use_VVI a_AT1 concordance_NN1 to_II the_AT Bible_NN1 ._. 
In_II many_DA2 cases_NN2 some_DD of_IO the_AT work_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN done_VDN for_IF you_PPY by_II previous_JJ scholars_NN2 ;_; so_RR ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 book_NN1 called_VVN Allusions_NN2 in_II Ulysses_NP1 (_( which_DDQ lists_VVZ allusions_NN2 made_VVN in_II James_NP1 Joyce_NP1 's_GE novel_JJ Ulysses_NP1 )_) ._. 
Finally_RR ,_, there_EX are_VBR books_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 information_NN1 about_II many_DA2 different_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO topic_NN1 ,_, and_CC which_DDQ can_VM often_RR turn_VVI out_RP to_TO be_VBI useful_JJ in_II unpredictable_JJ ways_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 include_VV0 The_AT Oxford_NP1 Companion_NN1 to_II Literature_NN1 ,_, where_CS you_PPY will_VM find_VVI information_NN1 about_II authors_NN2 ,_, texts_NN2 ,_, literary_JJ movements_NN2 ,_, and_CC general_JJ historical_JJ facts_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Oxford_NP1 Illustrated_VVD History_NN1 of_IO English_JJ Literature_NN1 enables_VVZ you_PPY to_TO explore_VVI literary_JJ history_NN1 by_II comparing_VVG juxtaposed_JJ commentary_NN1 ,_, quotation_NN1 and_CC pictures_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Cambridge_NP1 Encyclopedia_NP1 of_IO Language_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 compendium_NN1 of_IO useful_JJ information_NN1 about_II language_NN1 ,_, including_II language_NN1 in_II literature_NN1 ._. 
The_AT original_JJ (_( but_CCB still_RR available_JJ )_) Brewer_NP1 's_GE Dictionary_NN1 of_IO Phrase_NN1 and_CC Fable_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 nineteenth-century_JJ collection_NN1 of_IO somewhat_RR idiosyncratically_RR chosen_VVN historical_JJ ,_, mythical_JJ and_CC literary_JJ information_NN1 ;_; it_PPH1 is_VBZ useful_JJ partly_RR because_II21 of_II22 its_APPGE eccentricity_NN1 ,_, in_CS21 that_CS22 it_PPH1 contains_VVZ information_NN1 you_PPY may_VM not_XX find_VVI elsewhere_RL ._. 
And_CC it_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI wrong_JJ to_TO overlook_VVI the_AT very_RG large_JJ general_JJ encyclopedias_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 The_AT Encyclopedia_NP1 Britannica_FW ._. 
If_CS ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO know_VVI about_II punctuation_NN1 in_II the_AT seventeenth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, marriage_NN1 laws_NN2 in_II nineteenth-century_JJ Canada_NP1 ,_, the_AT history_NN1 of_IO the_AT Elizabethan_JJ stage_NN1 ,_, or_CC current_JJ theories_NN2 of_IO myth_NN1 or_CC symbol_NN1 ,_, this_DD1 is_VBZ one_MC1 place_NN1 well_RR worth_II looking_VVG ._. 
Ignore_VV0 the_AT scepticism_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 obsessed_JJ with_IW &quot;_" definitive_JJ &quot;_" sources_NN2 :_: the_AT entries_NN2 in_II Britannica_FW are_VBR always_RR good_JJ ,_, and_CC surprisingly_RR detailed._NNU 2.4_MC FINDING_VVG MORE_RRR TO_TO READ_VVI Besides_II these_DD2 almost_RR standard_JJ reference_NN1 sources_NN2 ,_, you_PPY will_VM need_VVI to_TO find_VVI more_RGR specific_JJ and_CC more_RGR specialised_JJ ideas_NN2 about_II what_DDQ to_TO read_VVI ._. 
One_MC1 way_NN1 of_IO acquiring_VVG such_DA ideas_NN2 ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, is_VBZ to_TO look_VVI on_II the_AT shelves_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 library_NN1 (_( or_CC bookshop_NN1 )_) ,_, or_CC in_II a_AT1 publisher_NN1 's_GE or_CC library_NN1 catalogue_NN1 ,_, where_CS you_PPY will_VM find_VVI books_NN2 gathered_VVN by_II subject_NN1 and_CC by_II author_NN1 ._. 
Make_VV0 yourself_PPX1 open_VV0 to_II chance_NN1 often_RR you_PPY will_VM find_VVI things_NN2 by_II accident_NN1 while_CS looking_VVG for_IF something_PN1 else_RR ,_, or_CC when_CS just_RR browsing_VVG aimlessly_RR ._. 
You_PPY may_VM also_RR like_VVI to_TO look_VVI in_II anthologies_NN2 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT Oxford_NP1 Book_NN1 of_IO Death_NN1 will_VM give_VVI you_PPY short_JJ texts_NN2 relating_VVG to_II death_NN1 ,_, and_CC selections_NN2 from_II longer_JJR texts_NN2 you_PPY might_VM want_VVI to_TO read_VVI all_DB the_AT way_NN1 through_II if_CSW you_PPY are_VBR interested_JJ in_II the_AT topic_NN1 ._. 
If_CS your_APPGE library_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 computerised_JJ catalogue_NN1 ,_, you_PPY may_VM be_VBI able_JK to_TO get_VVI a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO all_DB the_AT books_NN2 held_VVN on_II a_AT1 particular_JJ subject_NN1 matter_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM do_VDI this_DD1 directly_RR ,_, if_CS the_AT catalogue_NN1 has_VHZ subject_JJ divisions_NN2 ,_, or_CC indirectly_RR by_II looking_VVG for_IF all_DB books_NN2 with_IW a_AT1 particular_JJ word_NN1 in_II the_AT title_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY could_VM look_VVI for_IF all_DB books_NN2 in_II the_AT subject_NN1 area_NN1 &quot;_" feminism_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, or_CC all_DB books_NN2 with_IW &quot;_" feminism_NN1 &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" feminist_NN1 &quot;_" in_II the_AT title_NN1 ._. 
BOOLEAN_NN1 SEARCH_NN1 techniques_NN2 may_VM be_VBI available_JJ in_II a_AT1 computerised_JJ catalogue_NN1 ;_; these_DD2 enable_VV0 you_PPY to_TO select_VVI all_DB the_AT entries_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, both_DB2 &quot;_" feminism_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" Romanticism_NN1 &quot;_" in_II the_AT title_NN1 (_( or_CC close_JJ variants_NN2 on_II these_DD2 words_NN2 )_) ._. 
Another_DD1 approach_NN1 to_II finding_VVG more_RRR to_TO read_VVI is_VBZ to_TO consult_VVI a_AT1 bibliography_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO books_NN2 ._. 
One_MC1 place_NN1 to_TO find_VVI such_DA a_AT1 list_NN1 is_VBZ at_II the_AT back_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 monograph_NN1 or_CC textbook_NN1 ._. 
For_IF most_DAT short_JJ coursework_NN1 essays_NN2 ,_, this_DD1 may_VM well_RR be_VBI enough_RR ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY can_VM also_RR use_VVI specialised_JJ bibliographies_NN2 ._. 
Many_DA2 authors_NN2 have_VH0 whole_JJ bibliographies_NN2 devoted_VVD to_II them_PPHO2 ,_, and_CC there_EX are_VBR bibliographies_NN2 for_IF particular_JJ subject_NN1 areas_NN2 (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, Black_JJ British_JJ Literature_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 Annotated_JJ Bibliography_NN1 )_) ._. 
The_AT most_RGT comprehensive_JJ bibliography_NN1 for_IF literary_JJ studies_NN2 is_VBZ the_AT Modern_JJ Language_NN1 Association_NN1 of_IO America_NP1 &lsqb;_( MLA_NP1 &rsqb;_) international_JJ bibliography_NN1 ._. 
Another_DD1 ,_, more_RGR selective_JJ and_CC critical_JJ bibliography_NN1 is_VBZ The_AT Year_NNT1 's_GE Work_NN1 in_II Modern_JJ Language_NN1 Studies_NN2 ._. 
(_( Notice_VV0 that_CST &quot;_" Modern_JJ Language_NN1 &quot;_" in_II titles_NN2 usually_RR means_VVZ literature_NN1 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 language_NN1 ,_, and_CC looking_VVG in_II bibliographies_NN2 for_IF ideas_NN2 about_II what_DDQ to_TO read_VVI is_VBZ called_VVN a_AT1 LITERATURE_NN1 SEARCH_NN1 &quot;_" literature_NN1 &quot;_" in_II this_DD1 sense_NN1 means_VVZ &quot;_" the_AT collection_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN written_VVN &quot;_" ._. )_) 
A_AT1 third_MD approach_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO look_VVI at_II ABSTRACTS_NN2 ._. 
An_AT1 abstract_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 short_JJ summary_NN1 of_IO content_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, a_AT1 yearly_JJ volume_NN1 called_VVN Abstracts_NN2 of_IO English_JJ Studies_NN2 gives_VVZ very_RG short_JJ summaries_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 large_JJ number_NN1 of_IO articles_NN2 published_VVN in_II a_AT1 year_NNT1 ;_; there_EX are_VBR indexes_NN2 to_TO help_VVI you_PPY find_VVI particular_JJ topics_NN2 ._. 
Dissertation_NN1 Abstracts_NN2 International_JJ is_VBZ another_DD1 collection_NN1 of_IO abstracts_NN2 ,_, this_DD1 time_NNT1 quite_RG long_JJ abstracts_NN2 of_IO PhD_NN1 dissertations_NN2 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY are_VBR writing_VVG an_AT1 MA_NN1 ,_, MPhil_NN1 ,_, MLitt_NP1 or_CC PhD_NN1 dissertation_NN1 ,_, you_PPY should_VM look_VVI at_II this_DD1 book_NN1 to_TO see_VVI what_DDQ other_JJ people_NN have_VH0 written_VVN about_II the_AT topic_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR working_VVG on_RP ._. 
You_PPY can_VM use_VVI abstracts_NN2 as_II an_AT1 indication_NN1 of_IO something_PN1 you_PPY might_VM want_VVI to_TO read_VVI ,_, or_CC you_PPY can_VM just_RR read_VVI and_CC learn_VVI from_II the_AT abstracts_NN2 themselves_PPX2 ._. 
Another_DD1 way_NN1 of_IO finding_VVG useful_JJ or_CC appropriate_JJ things_NN2 to_TO read_VVI is_VBZ to_TO look_VVI at_II library_NN1 catalogues_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 been_VBN published_VVN as_CSA books_NN2 ._. 
In_II college_NN1 and_CC university_NN1 libraries_NN2 you_PPY will_VM often_RR find_VVI catalogues_NN2 for_IF other_JJ collections_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 are_VBR particularly_RR useful_JJ when_CS the_AT collections_NN2 are_VBR subject-specific_JJ ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 published_JJ catalogue_NN1 of_IO the_AT books_NN2 in_II the_AT Florida_NP1 State_NN1 University_NN1 &quot;_" Shaw_NP1 Childhood_NN1 in_II Poetry_NN1 collection_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; this_DD1 catalogue_NN1 lists_VVZ books_NN2 of_IO poems_NN2 relating_VVG to_II childhood_NN1 ,_, together_RL with_IW lists_NN2 of_IO poems_NN2 in_II the_AT books_NN2 ,_, and_CC even_RR representative_JJ poems_NN2 from_II the_AT books_NN2 making_VVG it_PPH1 a_RR21 bit_RR22 like_II a_AT1 dictionary_NN1 of_IO quotations_NN2 on_II the_AT topic_NN1 ._. 
If_CS your_APPGE current_JJ interest_NN1 happens_VVZ to_TO be_VBI in_II childhood_NN1 in_II literature_NN1 ,_, this_DD1 catalogue_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 interesting_JJ place_NN1 to_TO browse_VVI ._. 
Once_CS you_PPY start_VV0 looking_VVG ,_, you_PPY will_VM probably_RR find_VVI more_DAR than_CSN you_PPY have_VH0 time_NNT1 to_TO read_VVI ._. 
So_RR you_PPY will_VM need_VVI to_TO be_VBI selective_JJ in_II what_DDQ you_PPY decide_VV0 to_TO consult_VVI ._. 
Here_RL are_VBR some_DD ways_NN2 of_IO being_VBG selective._NNU *_FU Choose_VV0 recent_JJ books_NN2 first_MD (_( they_PPHS2 might_VM tell_VVI you_PPY what_DDQ earlier_JJR books_NN2 have_VH0 said_VVN )_) ._. 
Check_VV0 book_NN1 dates_VVZ generally_RR ,_, and_CC ask_VV0 yourself_PPX1 whether_CSW a_AT1 source_NN1 may_VM actually_RR be_VBI giving_VVG you_PPY an_AT1 outdated_JJ perspective._NNU *_FU Look_NN1 at_II the_AT range_NN1 of_IO titles_NN2 in_II the_AT field_NN1 and_CC for_IF topics_NN2 which_DDQ keep_VV0 coming_VVG up_RP ._. 
Make_VV0 sure_JJ you_PPY read_VV0 at_RR21 least_RR22 one_MC1 book_NN1 on_II each_DD1 relevant_JJ topic._NNU *_FU If_CSW you_PPY have_VH0 a_AT1 book_NN1 or_CC article_NN1 in_II your_APPGE hands_NN2 ,_, check_VV0 the_AT contents_NN2 page_NN1 and_CC preface_NN1 or_CC introduction_NN1 :_: these_DD2 will_VM give_VVI you_PPY a_AT1 sketch_NN1 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 's_GE scope_NN1 and_CC argument_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR useful_JJ to_TO look_VVI at_II the_AT bibliography_NN1 or_CC index_NN1 to_TO see_VVI what_DDQ it_PPH1 includes_VVZ and_CC what_DDQ it_PPH1 misses_VVZ out_RP ._. 
(_( Do_VD0 the_AT included_JJ terms_NN2 correspond_VV0 with_IW what_DDQ is_VBZ in_II your_APPGE view_NN1 important_JJ ,_, or_CC the_AT sense_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ is_VBZ important_JJ you_PPY have_VH0 formed_VVN from_II what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 already_RR read_VVN ?_? )_) *_FU Read_VVN the_AT last_MD page_NN1 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 or_CC article_NN1 :_: with_IW any_DD luck_NN1 it_PPH1 will_VM summarise_VVI what_DDQ went_VVD before_RT ,_, so_CS you_PPY can_VM choose_VVI whether_CSW to_TO read_VVI the_AT whole_JJ volume._NNU *_FU Check_NN1 the_AT contents_NN2 page_NN1 and_CC try_VV0 to_TO link_VVI up_RP the_AT entries_NN2 into_II a_AT1 developing_JJ narrative_NN1 or_CC argument_NN1 ._. 
When_CS you_PPY have_VH0 used_VVN a_AT1 bibliography_NN1 to_TO find_VVI the_AT title_NN1 of_IO something_PN1 to_TO read_VVI ,_, how_RRQ do_VD0 you_PPY then_RT get_VVI your_APPGE hands_NN2 on_II it_PPH1 ?_? 
If_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX in_II your_APPGE library_NN1 you_PPY may_VM have_VHI to_TO use_VVI inter-library_JJ loan_NN1 ,_, if_CS this_DD1 service_NN1 is_VBZ available_JJ to_II you_PPY ._. 
(_( In_II Britain_NP1 all_DB books_NN2 published_VVN are_VBR kept_VVN in_II copyright_NN1 libraries_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 the_AT British_JJ Library_NN1 in_II London_NP1 ,_, and_CC can_VM in_II principle_NN1 be_VBI borrowed_VVN by_II your_APPGE library_NN1 ,_, though_CS in_II practice_NN1 they_PPHS2 are_VBR not_XX available_JJ to_II everyone_PN1 ._. )_) 
In_II some_DD cases_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, the_AT elusive_JJ book_NN1 which_DDQ you_PPY need_VV0 may_VM in_II fact_NN1 be_VBI hidden_VVN in_II your_APPGE own_DA library_NN1 ._. 
(_( A_ZZ1 group_NN1 of_IO students_NN2 who_PNQS were_VBDR asked_VVN to_TO read_VVI the_AT poem_NN1 &quot;_" Lycidas_NN2 &quot;_" by_II John_NP1 Milton_NP1 could_VM n't_XX find_VVI it_PPH1 because_CS it_PPH1 was_VBDZ &quot;_" not_XX in_II the_AT catalogue_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
What_DDQ they_PPHS2 needed_VVD to_TO do_VDI was_VBDZ to_TO look_VVI in_II Milton_NP1 's_GE Collected_JJ Poems_NN2 or_CC in_II an_AT1 anthology_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 The_AT Oxford_NP1 Book_NN1 of_IO Seventeenth-Century_JJ Verse_NN1 ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 expecting_VVG individual_JJ titles_NN2 all_RR to_TO be_VBI listed_VVN separately_RR in_II the_AT catalogue_NN1 ._. )_) 
Finally_RR ,_, anthologies_NN2 exist_VV0 for_IF all_DB kinds_NN2 of_IO text_NN1 ,_, so_RR sometimes_RT what_DDQ you_PPY need_VV0 can_VM be_VBI found_VVN there_RL ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ true_JJ even_RR of_IO critical_JJ essays_NN2 :_: there_EX are_VBR anthologies_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 those_DD2 in_II the_AT Macmillan_NP1 Casebook_NP1 series_NN or_CC the_AT Longman_NP1 Critical_JJ Readers._NP1 2.5_MC HOW_RRQ TO_TO READ_VVI A_AT1 BOOK_NN1 OR_CC ARTICLE_NN1 Finding_VVG your_APPGE book_NN1 or_CC article_NN1 is_VBZ only_RR the_AT beginning_NN1 ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ._. 
Once_CS you_PPY have_VH0 it_PPH1 in_II your_APPGE hands_NN2 ,_, there_EX are_VBR a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO different_JJ ways_NN2 of_IO using_VVG it_PPH1 ._. 
Because_CS you_PPY will_VM often_RR have_VHI more_DAR to_TO read_VVI than_CSN you_PPY have_VH0 time_NNT1 for_IF ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO develop_VVI ways_NN2 of_IO reading_VVG more_RGR quickly_RR and_CC efficiently_RR ._. 
The_AT techniques_NN2 of_IO scanning_VVG and_CC skimming_VVG can_VM both_RR be_VBI used_VVN to_TO gain_VVI a_AT1 rough_JJ idea_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ an_AT1 article_NN1 or_CC book_NN1 contains_VVZ ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY can_VM read_VVI parts_NN2 in_II more_DAR detail_NN1 if_CS you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO ._. 
You_PPY can_VM SCAN_VVI ,_, which_DDQ involves_VVZ just_RR looking_VVG quickly_RR at_II each_DD1 page_NN1 ,_, to_TO pick_VVI out_RP anything_PN1 which_DDQ you_PPY recognise_VV0 as_CSA being_VBG relevant_JJ to_II you_PPY ,_, and_CC which_DDQ you_PPY can_VM then_RT read_VVI in_II detail_NN1 (_( scanning_NN1 involves_VVZ looking_VVG for_IF keywords_NN2 )_) ._. 
Or_CC you_PPY can_VM SKIM_VVI ,_, which_DDQ involves_VVZ just_RR reading_VVG the_AT first_MD sentence_NN1 of_IO every_AT1 paragraph_NN1 and_CC anything_PN1 prominent_JJ or_CC highlighted_VVN (_( in_II this_DD1 case_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT general_JJ sense_NN1 and_CC flow_NN1 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR trying_VVG to_TO absorb_VVI )_) ._. 
Both_DB2 of_IO these_DD2 reading_VVG techniques_NN2 are_VBR examples_NN2 of_IO how_RRQ reading_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 selective_JJ activity_NN1 ._. 
Even_CS21 when_CS22 you_PPY READ_VV0 INTENSIVELY_RR (_( that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, you_PPY focus_VV0 on_II every_AT1 word_NN1 )_) you_PPY are_VBR still_RR inevitably_RR selective_JJ in_II what_DDQ you_PPY understand_VV0 or_CC absorb_VV0 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY read_VV0 an_AT1 article_NN1 or_CC book_NN1 twice_RR you_PPY will_VM probably_RR be_VBI surprised_VVN by_II the_AT many_DA2 new_JJ things_NN2 you_PPY discover_VV0 the_AT second_MD time_NNT1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 common_JJ experience_NN1 in_II reading_VVG that_CST you_PPY read_VV0 something_PN1 ,_, then_RT try_VV0 to_TO write_VVI about_II it_PPH1 ;_; writing_VVG about_II it_PPH1 gives_VVZ you_PPY new_JJ ideas_NN2 ,_, and_CC so_RR when_CS you_PPY read_VV0 the_AT original_JJ again_RT you_PPY find_VV0 new_JJ things_NN2 in_II it_PPH1 because_II21 of_II22 the_AT new_JJ ideas_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 brought_VVN to_II it_PPH1 ._. 
This_DD1 suggests_VVZ that_CST books_NN2 or_CC articles_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR important_JJ to_II your_APPGE project_NN1 should_VM be_VBI read_VVN more_DAR than_CSN once_RR (_( early_RR on_RP ,_, and_CC then_RT again_RT later_RRR in_II your_APPGE study_NN1 )_) ._. 
Reading_NP1 is_VBZ an_AT1 active_JJ process_NN1 ,_, one_PN1 where_RRQ what_DDQ you_PPY bring_VV0 to_II your_APPGE reading_NN1 affects_VVZ what_DDQ you_PPY get_VV0 out_II21 of_II22 it_PPH1 :_: the_AT more_RGR you_PPY know_VV0 ,_, the_AT more_RGR you_PPY can_VM understand_VVI ._. 
Do_VD0 n't_XX go_VVI to_II books_NN2 passively_RR ,_, expecting_VVG simply_RR to_TO absorb_VVI and_CC to_TO be_VBI informed_VVN ._. 
Constantly_RR ask_VV0 yourself_PPX1 what_DDQ key_JJ questions_NN2 reading_VVG this_DD1 book_NN1 is_VBZ going_VVGK to_TO help_VVI to_TO answer_VVI ._. 
As_CSA you_PPY read_VV0 through_II a_AT1 book_NN1 or_CC long_JJ article_NN1 ,_, pause_NN1 after_II each_DD1 chapter_NN1 or_CC section_NN1 and_CC look_VV0 back_RP at_II any_DD notes_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 taken_VVN ._. 
Do_VD0 they_PPHS2 make_VVI sense_NN1 ?_? 
Do_VD0 they_PPHS2 provide_VVI facts_NN2 or_CC views_VVZ you_PPY can_VM use_VVI ?_? 
Are_VBR there_RL particular_JJ points_NN2 you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO go_VVI back_RP to_II ,_, or_CC will_VM need_VVI to_TO find_VVI out_RP more_RRR about_II ?_? 2.6_MC HOW_RRQ TO_TO KEEP_VVI NOTES_NN2 Your_APPGE reading_NN1 will_VM be_VBI useful_JJ only_JJ if_CS you_PPY remember_VV0 it_PPH1 and_CC can_VM do_VDI something_PN1 with_IW it_PPH1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR various_JJ ways_NN2 of_IO storing_VVG the_AT results_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE reading_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM buy_VVI the_AT book_NN1 ,_, and_CC write_VVI notes_NN2 directly_RR on_II it_PPH1 ,_, or_CC underline_NN1 (_( or_CC highlight_NN1 )_) parts_NN2 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM photocopy_VVI relevant_JJ sections_NN2 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 or_CC article_NN1 ._. 
Alternatively_RR ,_, you_PPY can_VM copy_VVI out_RP parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 into_II your_APPGE notes_NN2 ._. 
Or_CC you_PPY can_VM try_VVI to_TO restate_VVI passages_NN2 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 in_II your_APPGE own_DA words_NN2 ._. 
Which_DDQ of_IO these_DD2 you_PPY should_VM do_VDI involves_VVZ the_AT basic_JJ decision_NN1 whether_CSW you_PPY should_VM copy_VVI the_AT original_JJ words_NN2 ,_, or_CC restate_VV0 the_AT content_NN1 in_II your_APPGE own_DA words_NN2 ._. 
The_AT problem_NN1 with_IW keeping_VVG the_AT original_JJ (_( e.g._REX as_II a_AT1 photocopy_NN1 ,_, with_IW sections_NN2 highlighted_VVN )_) is_VBZ that_CST you_PPY have_VH0 n't_XX really_RR done_VDN anything_PN1 with_IW it_PPH1 yet_RR :_: you_PPY have_VH0 n't_XX assimilated_VVN it_PPH1 or_CC made_VVD it_PPH1 your_APPGE own_DA ,_, in_II the_AT sense_NN1 of_IO fitting_VVG it_PPH1 with_IW (_( and_CC so_RR allowing_VVG it_PPH1 to_TO affect_VVI )_) your_APPGE existing_JJ thoughts_NN2 and_CC knowledge_NN1 ._. 
At_II some_DD point_NN1 ,_, you_PPY will_VM probably_RR have_VHI to_TO write_VVI out_RP your_APPGE own_DA version_NN1 of_IO other_JJ people_NN 's_GE ideas_NN2 in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO paraphrase_NN1 or_CC summary_NN1 embedded_VVN in_II your_APPGE own_DA work_NN1 ;_; so_CS it_PPH1 could_VM be_VBI argued_VVN that_CST you_PPY should_VM do_VDI the_AT rewriting_NN1 from_II the_AT outset_NN1 ,_, as_CSA you_PPY take_VV0 your_APPGE notes_NN2 ,_, in_II an_AT1 effort_NN1 to_TO get_VVI at_II the_AT ideas_NN2 behind_II the_AT words_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 just_RR repeating_VVG the_AT words_NN2 themselves_PPX2 ._. 
The_AT problem_NN1 with_IW this_DD1 is_VBZ that_CST in_II doing_VDG so_RR you_PPY are_VBR taking_VVG a_AT1 risk_NN1 :_: perhaps_RR you_PPY are_VBR misunderstanding_VVG what_DDQ you_PPY read_VV0 ,_, and_CC so_RR your_APPGE notes_NN2 become_VV0 an_AT1 incorrect_JJ version_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ was_VBDZ said_VVN ._. 
One_MC1 response_NN1 to_II this_DD1 objection_NN1 ,_, though_CS ,_, is_VBZ that_DD1 sooner_RRR or_CC later_RRR you_PPY have_VH0 to_TO decide_VVI what_DDQ someone_PN1 means_VVZ and_CC how_RRQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ relevant_JJ to_II you_PPY ;_; so_CS you_PPY might_VM as_RR21 well_RR22 take_VVI that_DD1 decision_NN1 consciously_RR ,_, while_CS you_PPY have_VH0 the_AT book_NN1 or_CC article_NN1 in_II31 front_II32 of_II33 you_PPY to_TO check_VVI ._. 
However_RRQV you_PPY make_VV0 them_PPHO2 ,_, your_APPGE notes_NN2 are_VBR a_AT1 record_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 read_VVN ._. 
They_PPHS2 may_VM also_RR be_VBI a_AT1 record_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE developing_JJ ideas_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO make_VVI sure_JJ you_PPY can_VM find_VVI things_NN2 again_RT when_CS you_PPY need_VV0 them_PPHO2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ one_MC1 reason_NN1 why_RRQ cards_NN2 (_( INDEX_NN1 CARDS_NN2 )_) are_VBR popular_JJ as_II a_AT1 format_NN1 for_IF keeping_VVG notes_NN2 ._. 
Index_NN1 cards_NN2 are_VBR easily_RR handled_VVN and_CC shuffled_VVN ;_; they_PPHS2 can_VM be_VBI kept_VVN in_II alphabetised_JJ boxes_NN2 ,_, come_VV0 in_II different_JJ colours_NN2 ,_, and_CC can_VM have_VHI a_AT1 topic_NN1 ,_, keyword_NN1 or_CC reference_NN1 written_VVN at_II the_AT top_NN1 ,_, as_CSA an_AT1 indication_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ is_VBZ on_II the_AT card_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 features_NN2 make_VV0 index_NN1 cards_NN2 easy_JJ to_TO organise_VVI ,_, and_CC well-organised_JJ notes_NN2 mean_VV0 that_CST you_PPY can_VM find_VVI information_NN1 more_RGR easily_RR ._. 
One_MC1 basic_JJ decision_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 to_TO make_VVI is_VBZ whether_CSW to_TO index_VVI a_AT1 card_NN1 by_II writing_VVG at_II the_AT top_NN1 of_IO the_AT card_NN1 a_AT1 theme/keyword_NN1 or_CC a_AT1 name_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 author/title_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY might_VM for_REX21 example_REX22 have_VHI a_AT1 card_NN1 on_II the_AT theme/keyword_NN1 &quot;_" the_AT sublime_JJ &quot;_" ,_, including_II notes_NN2 drawn_VVN from_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO different_JJ books_NN2 ._. 
Or_CC a_AT1 card_NN1 which_DDQ contains_VVZ only_JJ notes_NN2 from_II Monk_NP1 's_GE book_NN1 The_AT Sublime_JJ :_: a_AT1 Study_NN1 of_IO Critical_JJ Theories_NN2 in_II Eighteenth-Century_JJ England_NP1 ._. 
In_RR21 general_RR22 ,_, the_AT former_DA method_NN1 of_IO organising_VVG by_II themes_NN2 and_CC keywords_NN2 involves_VVZ you_PPY more_RRR in_II doing_VDG analysis_NN1 and_CC thinking_VVG at_II the_AT moment_NN1 of_IO reading_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ generally_RR a_AT1 good_JJ idea_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY may_VM also_RR be_VBI able_JK to_TO store_VVI your_APPGE notes_NN2 on_II the_AT equivalent_NN1 of_IO index_NN1 cards_NN2 on_II a_AT1 computer_NN1 (_( in_II a_AT1 database_NN1 ,_, or_CC in_II word-processing_NN1 document_NN1 files_NN2 )_) ._. 
Finding_VVG information_NN1 in_II computerised_JJ notes_NN2 is_VBZ in_II principle_NN1 much_RR more_RGR efficient_JJ because_CS you_PPY can_VM search_VVI for_IF every_AT1 use_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 particular_JJ word_NN1 throughout_II your_APPGE notes_NN2 ._. 
On_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, on_II a_AT1 computer_NN1 screen_VV0 you_PPY can_VM only_RR see_VVI a_AT1 small_JJ amount_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 at_II any_DD given_JJ time_NNT1 ,_, whereas_CS with_IW index_NN1 cards_NN2 you_PPY can_VM lay_VVI them_PPHO2 out_RP across_II a_AT1 table_NN1 or_CC on_II the_AT floor_NN1 for_IF an_AT1 overview_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY also_RR have_VH0 to_TO be_VBI able_JK to_TO have_VHI the_AT computer_NN1 with_IW you_PPY when_CS you_PPY take_VV0 the_AT notes_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ not_XX always_RR easy_JJ to_TO arrange_VVI ._. 
In_II whatever_DDQV format_NN1 you_PPY keep_VV0 them_PPHO2 ,_, the_AT notes_NN2 you_PPY make_VV0 need_VVI to_TO be_VBI clear_JJ ;_; if_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR not_XX self-explanatory_JJ at_II the_AT time_NNT1 you_PPY write_VV0 them_PPHO2 ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR unlikely_JJ to_TO be_VBI intelligible_JJ later_JJR ,_, when_CS your_APPGE memory_NN1 of_IO working_VVG on_II the_AT particular_JJ book_NN1 or_CC topic_NN1 has_VHZ faded_VVN ._. 
So_RR read_VVN over_II your_APPGE notes_NN2 once_CS you_PPY have_VH0 made_VVN them_PPHO2 ,_, and_CC edit_VV0 them_PPHO2 until_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR as_RG comprehensible_JJ as_CSA possible_JJ without_IW reference_NN1 back_RP to_II the_AT source_NN1 work_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR generally_RR a_AT1 good_JJ idea_NN1 to_TO keep_VVI your_APPGE notes_NN2 short_JJ ;_; while_CS you_PPY may_VM want_VVI to_TO keep_VVI a_AT1 record_NN1 of_IO everything_PN1 that_CST might_VM prove_VVI useful_JJ ,_, your_APPGE notes_NN2 will_VM seem_VVI unhelpful_JJ if_CS you_PPY feel_VV0 swamped_VVN with_IW redundant_JJ information_NN1 when_CS you_PPY come_VV0 to_TO refer_VVI to_II them_PPHO2 later._NNU 2.7_MC KEEPING_VVG A_AT1 RECORD_NN1 OF_IO WHERE_RRQ YOU_PPY FOUND_VVD SOMETHING_PN1 At_II the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 chapter_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 suggested_VVD that_CST when_CS you_PPY write_VV0 you_PPY use_VV0 what_DDQ other_JJ people_NN have_VH0 written_VVN ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT conventions_NN2 of_IO research_NN1 which_DDQ we_PPIS2 discuss_VV0 in_RP more_DAR detail_NN1 below_RL ,_, in_II Chapter_NN1 5_MC is_VBZ that_CST you_PPY must_VM enable_VVI your_APPGE reader_NN1 to_TO find_VVI again_RT what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 read_VVN (_( and_CC in_II any_DD case_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ useful_JJ for_IF you_PPY to_TO be_VBI able_JK to_TO find_VVI again_RT what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 read_VVN )_) ._. 
So_RR you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO write_VVI down_RP enough_DD details_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 book_NN1 or_CC article_NN1 ,_, or_CC any_DD other_JJ source_NN1 ,_, to_TO enable_VVI it_PPH1 to_TO be_VBI found_VVN again_RT ._. 
In_II some_DD cases_NN2 it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI difficult_JJ or_CC even_RR impossible_JJ to_TO find_VVI texts_NN2 again_RT (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 if_CS the_AT text_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 lecture_NN1 ,_, or_CC a_AT1 television_NN1 programme_NN1 )_) ,_, but_CCB you_PPY should_VM still_RR keep_VVI details_NN2 of_IO them_PPHO2 as_RG fully_RR as_CSA possible_JJ ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 your_APPGE reader_NN1 knows_VVZ exactly_RR where_CS ideas_NN2 or_CC words_NN2 come_VV0 from_II ._. 
The_AT information_NN1 you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO keep_VVI for_IF everything_PN1 you_PPY read_VV0 includes_VVZ the_AT following_JJ ._. 
(_( You_PPY will_VM find_VVI such_DA information_NN1 usually_RR at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 book_NN1 though_CS some_DD books_NN2 have_VH0 details_NN2 of_IO publication_NN1 on_II the_AT last_MD page_NN1 instead._NNU )_) (_( a_ZZ1 )_) The_AT author_NN1 's_GE full_JJ name_NN1 ._. 
Write_VV0 the_AT family_NN1 name_NN1 first_MD ,_, as_CSA this_DD1 will_VM decide_VVI where_RRQ the_AT work_NN1 will_VM go_VVI in_II an_AT1 alphabetical_JJ list._NNU (_( b_ZZ1 )_) Any_DD other_JJ people_NN involved_VVD ,_, other_II21 than_II22 an_AT1 author_NN1 ._. 
There_EX might_VM for_REX21 example_REX22 be_VBI an_AT1 editor_NN1 ,_, compiler_NN1 or_CC translator._NNU (_( c_ZZ1 )_) The_AT full_JJ title_NN1 and_CC subtitle_NN1 of_IO the_AT work_NN1 ._. 
Put_VV0 a_AT1 colon_NN1 between_II the_AT title_NN1 and_CC the_AT subtitle_NN1 ,_, even_CS21 if_CS22 there_EX is_VBZ n't_XX one_PN1 in_II the_AT original_JJ ._. 
Underline_VV0 the_AT title_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 book_NN1 ,_, and_CC put_VVD an_AT1 article_NN1 's_GE title_NN1 in_II single_JJ quotation_NN1 marks._NNU (_( d_ZZ1 )_) The_AT name_NN1 of_IO the_AT publisher_NN1 ,_, the_AT place_NN1 where_RRQ it_PPH1 was_VBDZ published_VVN ,_, and_CC the_AT date_NN1 of_IO publication_NN1 all_RR for_IF the_AT edition_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 in_II your_APPGE hands_NN2 ._. 
Often_RR books_NN2 will_VM have_VHI a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO different_JJ places_NN2 ;_; the_AT convention_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO choose_VVI only_RR the_AT first_MD ._. 
In_II some_DD cases_NN2 you_PPY may_VM want_VVI to_TO add_VVI further_JJR information_NN1 :_: books_NN2 are_VBR published_VVN in_II Cambridge_NP1 England_NP1 and_CC Cambridge_NP1 USA_NP1 ,_, so_RR saying_VVG just_RR &quot;_" Cambridge_NP1 &quot;_" may_VM not_XX be_VBI helpful_JJ ;_; add_VV0 country_NN1 details_NN2 if_CS you_PPY think_VV0 there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 possibility_NN1 of_IO confusion._NNU (_( e_ZZ1 )_) If_CS the_AT text_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 article_NN1 in_II a_AT1 journal_NN1 or_CC a_AT1 chapter_NN1 in_II an_AT1 edited_JJ book_NN1 or_CC anthology_NN1 ,_, keep_VV0 details_NN2 about_II the_AT collection_NN1 in_II which_DDQ you_PPY found_VVD it_PPH1 ;_; for_IF a_AT1 journal_NN1 article_NN1 ,_, note_VV0 the_AT volume_NN1 and_CC issue_NN1 number_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT page_NN1 numbers_NN2 on_II which_DDQ the_AT article_NN1 appears._NNU (_( f_ZZ1 )_) Sometimes_RT books_NN2 or_CC articles_NN2 exist_VV0 in_II several_DA2 different_JJ versions_NN2 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY are_VBR not_XX using_VVG the_AT original_JJ version_NN1 ,_, you_PPY should_VM say_VVI so_RR (_( e.g._REX by_II noting_VVG &quot;_" second_MD edition_NN1 &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" reprinted_JJ version_NN1 &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" facsimile_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
You_PPY should_VM keep_VVI details_NN2 of_IO the_AT original_JJ version_NN1 ,_, if_CS you_PPY can_VM find_VVI them_PPHO2 ._. 
For_IF an_AT1 article_NN1 in_II an_AT1 anthology_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO keep_VVI details_NN2 of_IO the_AT journal_NN1 in_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 originally_RR appeared_VVD ._. 
For_IF a_AT1 FACSIMILE_NN1 edition_NN1 (_( a_AT1 photographic_JJ reprint_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 old_JJ book_NN1 )_) ,_, note_VV0 both_RR information_NN1 relating_VVG to_II the_AT current_JJ edition_NN1 and_CC also_RR information_NN1 relating_VVG to_II the_AT original_JJ edition_NN1 ._. 
If_CS a_AT1 book_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 translation_NN1 ,_, keep_VV0 information_NN1 about_II the_AT original_JJ title_NN1 ,_, publisher_NN1 ,_, etc._RA (_( g_ZZ1 )_) Usually_RR you_PPY will_VM refer_VVI to_II or_CC quote_VV0 from_II a_AT1 particular_JJ passage_NN1 in_II a_AT1 book_NN1 or_CC article_NN1 ;_; in_II this_DD1 case_NN1 ,_, note_VV0 the_AT page_NN1 number_NN1 ._. 
Because_CS literary_JJ texts_NN2 exist_VV0 in_II different_JJ editions_NN2 it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI more_RGR helpful_JJ instead_RR to_TO note_VVI the_AT chapter_NN1 number_NN1 ,_, act_NN1 and_CC scene_NN1 number_NN1 ,_, line_NN1 number_NN1 ,_, etc._RA (_( and_CC of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, you_PPY should_VM indicate_VVI the_AT exact_JJ edition_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR using_VVG )_) ._. 
(_( h_ZZ1 )_) For_IF your_APPGE own_DA benefit_NN1 ,_, also_RR keep_VV0 a_AT1 record_NN1 of_IO where_RRQ you_PPY found_VVD the_AT book_NN1 (_( which_DDQ library_NN1 and_CC the_AT call_NN1 number_NN1 )_) ,_, in_CS21 case_CS22 you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO consult_VVI it_PPH1 again_RT ._. 
There_EX are_VBR detailed_JJ guidelines_NN2 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 in_II The_AT MLA_NN1 Style_NN1 Manual_NN1 or_CC the_AT MHRA_NN1 Style_NN1 Book_NN1 ,_, to_TO tell_VVI you_PPY how_RRQ to_TO deal_VVI with_IW all_DB kinds_NN2 of_IO complicated_JJ cases_NN2 ._. 
Below_RL ,_, in_II Chapters_NN2 5_MC and_CC 7_MC ,_, we_PPIS2 enlarge_VV0 on_II what_DDQ we_PPIS2 have_VH0 said_VVN here_RL ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 make_VV0 suggestions_NN2 about_II how_RRQ to_TO present_VVI references_NN2 in_II footnotes_NN2 and_CC booklists_NN2 appended_VVD to_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 or_CC dissertation_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB note_VV0 in_II the_AT meantime_NNT1 that_CST published_VVD rules_NN2 do_VD0 n't_XX always_RR help_VVI you_PPY ._. 
Often_RR you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO work_VVI things_NN2 out_RP for_IF yourself_PPX1 ._. 
Here_RL is_VBZ an_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO the_AT need_NN1 to_TO improvise_VVI ._. 
We_PPIS2 wish_VV0 to_TO refer_VVI to_II an_AT1 anthology_NN1 of_IO poetry_NN1 and_CC prose_NN1 which_DDQ we_PPIS2 have_VH0 open_RR in_II31 front_II32 of_II33 us_PPIO2 ._. 
At_II the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 ,_, on_II the_AT verso_NN1 (_( left-hand_JJ )_) page_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 says_VVZ Oxford_NP1 University_NN1 Press_NN1 ._. 
London_NP1 ,_, Edinburgh_NP1 ,_, Glasgow_NP1 ,_, New_NP1 York_NP1 ,_, Toronto_NP1 ,_, Melbourne_NP1 ,_, Cape_NP1 Town_NP1 ,_, Bombay_NP1 Humphrey_NP1 Milford_NP1 ,_, Publisher_NN1 to_II the_AT University_NN1 On_II the_AT recto_NN1 (_( right-hand_JJ )_) page_NN1 it_PPH1 says_VVZ :_: A_AT1 Book_NN1 of_IO the_AT Sea_NN1 ._. 
Selected_JJ and_CC arranged_VVN by_II Lady_NNB Sybil_NP1 Scott_NP1 Oxford_NP1 ._. 
At_II the_AT Clarendon_NP1 Press._NP1 1918_MC The_AT first_MD problem_NN1 is_VBZ :_: how_RRQ to_TO record_VVI the_AT name_NN1 of_IO the_AT author_NN1 ._. 
Should_VM it_PPH1 be_VBI &quot;_" Scott_NP1 ,_, Lady_NNB Sybil_NP1 &quot;_" or_CC just_RR &quot;_" Scott_NP1 ,_, Sybil_NP1 &quot;_" ?_? 
We_PPIS2 would_VM be_VBI inclined_JJ to_TO use_VVI the_AT first_MD ,_, because_CS it_PPH1 gives_VVZ a_AT1 better_JJR sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT feel_NN1 of_IO the_AT anthology_NN1 ;_; but_CCB this_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 fairly_RR arbitrary_JJ decision_NN1 ,_, where_CS rule-books_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX help_VVI ._. 
How_RRQ should_VM we_PPIS2 list_VVI the_AT author_NN1 's_GE role_NN1 ?_? 
We_PPIS2 could_VM say_VVI simply_RR &quot;_" (_( edited_VVN )_) &quot;_" but_CCB perhaps_RR we_PPIS2 should_VM take_VVI the_AT title_NN1 page_NN1 at_II its_APPGE word_NN1 and_CC say_VV0 instead_RR &quot;_" (_( selection_NN1 and_CC arrangement_NN1 )_) &quot;_" ._. 
Is_VBZ the_AT publisher_NN1 Oxford_NP1 University_NN1 Press_NN1 or_CC Humphrey_NP1 Milford_NP1 or_CC Clarendon_NP1 Press_NN1 ?_? 
(_( Actually_RR ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ Oxford_NP1 University_NN1 Press_NN1 ,_, but_CCB we_PPIS2 can_VM be_VBI sure_JJ of_IO this_DD1 only_RR because_CS we_PPIS2 already_RR know_VV0 something_PN1 about_II this_DD1 publisher_NN1 ._. )_) 
Finally_RR ,_, is_VBZ the_AT place_NN1 of_IO publication_NN1 London_NP1 (_( the_AT first_MD in_II the_AT list_NN1 under_II the_AT publisher_NN1 's_GE name_NN1 )_) or_CC Oxford_NP1 ?_? 
Again_RT ,_, we_PPIS2 choose_VV0 Oxford_NP1 ,_, but_CCB only_RR because_CS this_DD1 is_VBZ usually_RR given_VVN as_II the_AT place_NN1 of_IO publication_NN1 for_IF Oxford_NP1 University_NN1 Press_NN1 books_NN2 ._. 
So_RR our_APPGE notes_NN2 say_VV0 :_: Scott_NP1 ,_, Lady_NNB Sybil_NP1 (_( selection_NN1 and_CC arrangement_NN1 )_) ,_, A_ZZ1 Book_NN1 of_IO the_AT Sea_NN1 (_( Oxford_NP1 :_: Oxford_NP1 University_NN1 Press_NN1 ,_, 1918_MC )_) ._. 
Getting_VVG to_II this_DD1 stage_NN1 involves_VVZ some_DD active_JJ interpretation_NN1 (_( and_CC some_DD fairly_RR random_JJ decisions_NN2 too_RR )_) ._. 
As_RR21 usual_RR22 in_II writing_NN1 ,_, following_VVG rules_NN2 by_II itself_PPX1 achieves_VVZ little._NNU 2.8_MC USING_VVG A_AT1 COMPUTER_NN1 TO_TO FIND_VVI AND_CC STORE_NN1 INFORMATION_NN1 Computers_NN2 are_VBR particularly_RR good_JJ for_IF finding_VVG ,_, storing_VVG and_CC retrieving_VVG information_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 can_VM be_VBI illustrated_VVN in_II the_AT context_NN1 of_IO literary_JJ studies_NN2 with_IW one_MC1 or_CC two_MC examples_NN2 ,_, starting_VVG with_IW the_AT advantage_NN1 of_IO using_VVG a_AT1 computerised_JJ library_NN1 catalogue_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 non-computerised_JJ library_NN1 catalogue_NN1 is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 collection_NN1 of_IO cards_NN2 ,_, each_DD1 a_AT1 record_NN1 about_II a_AT1 book_NN1 ,_, in_II alphabetical_JJ order_NN1 according_II21 to_II22 the_AT author_NN1 's_GE family_NN1 name_NN1 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY know_VV0 just_RR the_AT title_NN1 but_CCB not_XX the_AT author_NN1 's_GE name_NN1 ,_, you_PPY may_VM be_VBI out_II21 of_II22 luck_NN1 ._. 
In_II a_AT1 computerised_JJ catalogue_NN1 ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, you_PPY can_VM in_II principle_NN1 search_NN1 according_II21 to_II22 any_DD aspect_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 record_NN1 about_II a_AT1 book_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ because_CS computerised_JJ information_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX as_RG rigidly_RR organised_VVN in_II advance_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ means_VVZ that_CST you_PPY can_VM search_VVI through_II it_PPH1 in_II any_DD way_NN1 you_PPY please_RR ._. 
Computerised_JJ library_NN1 catalogues_NN2 are_VBR just_RR one_MC1 example_NN1 of_IO the_AT many_DA2 forms_NN2 of_IO computerised_JJ bibliographical_JJ information_NN1 which_DDQ are_VBR available_JJ ._. 
The_AT Modern_JJ Language_NN1 Association_NN1 Bibliography_NN1 from_II 1985_MC to_II the_AT present_NN1 is_VBZ available_JJ on_II compact_JJ disc_NN1 ,_, so_CS you_PPY can_VM do_VDI much_DA1 quicker_JJR searches_NN2 than_CSN if_CS you_PPY had_VHD to_TO haul_VVI out_RP each_DD1 year_NNT1 's_GE book_NN1 one_MC1 by_II one_MC1 ._. 
Increasingly_RR ,_, literary_JJ texts_NN2 are_VBR becoming_VVG available_JJ in_II computerised_JJ form_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT Oxford_NP1 Text_NN1 Archive_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 collection_NN1 of_IO computerised_JJ texts_NN2 ,_, each_DD1 of_IO which_DDQ you_PPY can_VM buy_VVI on_II floppy_JJ disc_NN1 for_IF the_AT price_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 printed_JJ copy_NN1 ._. 
Shakespeare_NP1 's_GE works_NN are_VBR available_JJ on_II disc_NN1 from_II many_DA2 sources_NN2 ,_, as_CSA is_VBZ the_AT Bible_NN1 ._. 
Compact_JJ discs_NN2 are_VBR available_JJ which_DDQ contain_VV0 a_AT1 corpus_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 whole_JJ century_NNT1 of_IO poetry_NN1 on_II a_AT1 single_JJ disc_NN1 ._. 
And_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO make_VVI new_JJ electronic_JJ texts_NN2 by_II scanning_VVG printed_JJ texts_NN2 into_II a_AT1 computer_NN1 ._. 
The_AT advantage_NN1 of_IO having_VHG a_AT1 text_NN1 in_II computerised_JJ form_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST you_PPY can_VM find_VVI things_NN2 in_II it_PPH1 very_RG easily_RR using_VVG computerised_JJ search_NN1 techniques_NN2 ,_, and_CC you_PPY can_VM do_VDI more_DAR complicated_JJ searches_NN2 than_CSN you_PPY ever_RR could_VM with_IW a_AT1 printed_JJ concordance_NN1 ._. 
Let_VM21 's_VM22 say_VVI you_PPY are_VBR interested_JJ in_II the_AT opposition_NN1 of_IO love_NN1 and_CC hate_VV0 in_II Shakespeare_NP1 's_GE play_NN1 All_DB 's_VBZ Well_JJ that_CST Ends_VVZ Well_RR ._. 
Using_VVG a_AT1 Complete_JJ Shakespeare_NP1 on_II CD_NN1 ,_, you_PPY can_VM look_VVI for_IF all_DB cases_NN2 where_CS these_DD2 two_MC words_NN2 are_VBR used_VVN within_RL ,_, say_VV0 ,_, five_MC lines_NN2 of_IO each_PPX221 other_PPX222 ;_; and_CC you_PPY 'll_VM get_VVI your_APPGE answer_NN1 within_II a_AT1 minute_NNT1 or_CC so_RR ._. 
Another_DD1 useful_JJ resource_NN1 is_VBZ offered_VVN by_II the_AT possibility_NN1 of_IO putting_VVG very_RG large_JJ dictionaries_NN2 onto_II a_AT1 single_JJ compact_JJ disc_NN1 ._. 
The_AT full_JJ Oxford_NP1 English_JJ Dictionary_NN1 is_VBZ available_JJ on_II compact_JJ disc_NN1 ;_; and_CC with_IW it_PPH1 you_PPY can_VM do_VDI far_RG more_RGR extensive_JJ searches_NN2 for_IF information_NN1 than_CSN the_AT printed_JJ book_NN1 allows_VVZ ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, if_CS you_PPY are_VBR interested_JJ in_II the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" love_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, with_IW the_AT book_NN1 version_NN1 of_IO the_AT OED_NP1 you_PPY can_VM look_VVI up_RP &quot;_" love_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC you_PPY will_VM be_VBI given_VVN definitions_NN2 and_CC illustrative_JJ quotations_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT compact-disc_JJ OED_NP1 ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, you_PPY can_VM look_VVI for_IF the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" love_VV0 &quot;_" not_XX just_RR in_II the_AT entry_NN1 for_IF &quot;_" love_NN1 &quot;_" but_CCB in_II every_AT1 entry_NN1 in_II the_AT whole_JJ dictionary_NN1 ;_; the_AT search_NN1 will_VM find_VVI &quot;_" love_NN1 &quot;_" in_II any_DD quotation_NN1 anywhere_RL in_II the_AT entire_JJ dictionary_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 search_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 size_NN1 is_VBZ impossible_JJ with_IW the_AT printed_JJ OED_NP1 ,_, where_CS you_PPY are_VBR restricted_VVN to_II just_RR those_DD2 quotations_NN2 including_II &quot;_" love_NN1 &quot;_" which_DDQ the_AT original_JJ editors_NN2 decided_VVD to_TO put_VVI into_II the_AT entry_NN1 for_IF &quot;_" love_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ likely_JJ that_CST computerized_JJ storage_NN1 and_CC retrieval_NN1 facilities_NN2 will_VM take_VVI on_RP an_AT1 increasing_JJ importance_NN1 in_II literary_JJ studies_NN2 ;_; so_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ worth_II exploring_VVG them_PPHO2 whenever_RRQV you_PPY can_VM ._. 
It_PPH1 should_VM be_VBI said_VVN ,_, nevertheless_RR ,_, that_DD1 powerful_JJ search_NN1 techniques_NN2 ,_, across_II such_DA large_JJ databases_NN2 ,_, will_VM still_RR only_RR contribute_VVI effectively_RR to_II your_APPGE essay-writing_NN1 or_CC research_NN1 if_CS you_PPY maintain_VV0 a_AT1 clear_JJ sense_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR looking_VVG for_IF and_CC why_RRQ a_AT1 guiding_JJ principle_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ itself_PPX1 independent_JJ of_IO the_AT technology._NNU 2.9_MC USING_VVG YOUR_APPGE SUPERVISOR_NN1 The_AT role_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 supervisor_NN1 varies_VVZ ,_, depending_II21 on_II22 the_AT level_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR doing_VDG and_CC the_AT conventions_NN2 of_IO supervision_NN1 for_IF the_AT department_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR in_RP ._. 
The_AT role_NN1 will_VM hardly_RR ever_RR be_VBI one_MC1 of_IO telling_VVG you_PPY what_DDQ to_TO do_VDI ;_; instead_RR ,_, the_AT supervisor_NN1 reviews_NN2 what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 done_VDN ._. 
This_DD1 means_VVZ that_CST as_II a_AT1 student_NN1 who_PNQS is_VBZ being_VBG supervised_VVN it_PPH1 is_VBZ you_PPY who_PNQS have_VH0 to_TO be_VBI proactive_JJ rather_II21 than_II22 reactive_JJ ._. 
Being_VBG proactive_JJ means_NN negotiating_VVG with_IW your_APPGE supervisor_NN1 about_II what_DDQ you_PPY expect_VV0 from_II her_PPHO1 or_CC him_PPHO1 ,_, instead_CS21 of_CS22 just_RR accepting_VVG the_AT terms_NN2 (_( often_RR not_XX actually_RR made_VVN explicit_JJ )_) on_II which_DDQ supervision_NN1 is_VBZ offered_VVN ._. 
Prepare_VV0 questions_NN2 and_CC an_AT1 informal_JJ agenda_NN1 for_IF each_DD1 meeting_NN1 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 when_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ over_II you_PPY can_VM be_VBI certain_JJ that_CST alongside_II all_DB other_JJ new_JJ questions_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR raised_VVN you_PPY have_VH0 asked_VVN or_CC raised_VVD all_DB the_AT issues_NN2 you_PPY wanted_VVD to_TO ._. 
Try_VV0 to_TO arrange_VVI for_IF a_AT1 written_JJ record_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN agreed_VVN for_IF the_AT next_MD meeting_NN1 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY can_VM work_VVI to_II an_AT1 explicit_JJ plan_NN1 ._. 
Take_VV0 an_AT1 active_JJ role_NN1 in_II asking_VVG for_IF appointments_NN2 ;_; most_DAT kinds_NN2 of_IO research_NN1 benefit_NN1 from_II discussion_NN1 at_RR21 least_RR22 every_AT1 month_NNT1 or_CC so_RR ._. 
Do_VD0 not_XX let_VVI the_AT channel_NN1 of_IO communication_NN1 with_IW your_APPGE supervisor_NN1 close_VV0 even_CS21 if_CS22 you_PPY are_VBR behind_RL and_CC would_VM rather_RR not_XX have_VHI to_TO face_VVI the_AT situation_NN1 of_IO explaining_VVG why_RRQ ._. 
Staying_VVG in_II communication_NN1 allows_VVZ for_IF discussion_NN1 and_CC possible_JJ help_NN1 ,_, whereas_CS losing_VVG touch_NN1 will_VM categorise_VVI you_PPY only_RR as_CSA someone_PN1 who_PNQS is_VBZ failing_VVG to_TO meet_VVI deadlines_NN2 ._. 
Always_RR bring_VV0 something_PN1 with_IW you_PPY to_II a_AT1 supervision_NN1 :_: ideas_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 written_VVN down_RP ,_, an_AT1 outline_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 essay_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 text_NN1 you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO talk_VVI about_II ,_, or_CC a_AT1 plan_NN1 of_IO action_NN1 ._. 
Your_APPGE supervisor_NN1 's_GE approach_NN1 and_CC enthusiasm_NN1 are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO vary_VVI according_II21 to_II22 how_RGQ motivated_JJ and_CC organised_VVD you_PPY are_VBR ._. 
You_PPY will_VM get_VVI better_JJR help_NN1 if_CS you_PPY have_VH0 outlines_NN2 and_CC ideas_NN2 for_IF the_AT supervisor_NN1 to_TO react_VVI to_TO ;_; experiment_NN1 with_IW your_APPGE ideas_NN2 and_CC see_VV0 what_DDQ reactions_NN2 you_PPY get_VV0 ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 waiting_VVG to_TO produce_VVI ideas_NN2 that_CST you_PPY are_VBR sure_RR fit_VV0 in_RP with_IW an_AT1 established_JJ approach_NN1 ._. 
See_VV0 your_APPGE supervisor_NN1 as_II a_AT1 facilitator_NN1 or_CC notional_JJ &quot;_" editor_NN1 &quot;_" /adviser_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE work_NN1 ,_, rather_CS21 than_CS22 as_II a_AT1 teacher_NN1 who_PNQS will_VM inform_VVI you_PPY ,_, or_CC as_II an_AT1 authority_NN1 ._. 
Ask_VV0 for_IF comments_NN2 on_II drafts_NN2 of_IO work_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 written_VVN ,_, and_CC discuss_VV0 those_DD2 comments_NN2 ,_, even_CS21 if_CS22 this_DD1 means_VVZ talking_VVG about_II apparently_RR negative_JJ judgements_NN2 on_II your_APPGE work_NN1 so_RG far_RR ._. 
Feedback_NN1 provided_VVN by_II your_APPGE tutor_NN1 is_VBZ supposed_JJ to_TO be_VBI helpful_JJ and_CC constructive_JJ (_( &quot;_" formative_JJ feedback_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ,_, and_CC you_PPY stand_VV0 to_TO gain_VVI most_RRT from_II having_VHG comments_NN2 clarified_VVN even_RR deciphered_VVD where_RRQ necessary_JJ ,_, and_CC ensuring_VVG through_II discussion_NN1 that_CST you_PPY understand_VV0 the_AT general_JJ perspective_NN1 from_II which_DDQ criticisms_NN2 or_CC comments_NN2 are_VBR made_VVN ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR useful_JJ to_TO carry_VVI out_RP your_APPGE own_DA critical_JJ analysis_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 essay_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 completed_VVN ._. 
A_AT1 week_NNT1 or_CC more_RRR after_II writing_NN1 ,_, you_PPY are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO have_VHI sufficient_JJ detachment_NN1 to_TO examine_VVI your_APPGE work_NN1 as_II a_AT1 reader_NN1 ,_, rather_CS21 than_CS22 as_CSA its_APPGE writer_NN1 ._. 
Add_VV0 a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE own_DA comments_NN2 to_II your_APPGE tutor_NN1 's_GE feedback_NN1 ,_, for_IF future_JJ reference._NNU 2.10_MC PLANNING_VVG YOUR_APPGE TIME_NNT1 Be_VBI realistic_JJ about_II time_NNT1 in_II your_APPGE planning_NN1 ._. 
And_CC suit_VV0 yourself_PPX1 everyone_PN1 works_VVZ differently_RR ,_, and_CC your_APPGE personal_JJ best_JJT working_JJ patterns_NN2 may_VM well_RR be_VBI different_JJ from_II those_DD2 other_JJ people_NN might_VM expect_VVI from_II you_PPY ._. 
The_AT aim_NN1 should_VM be_VBI to_TO develop_VVI your_APPGE own_DA potential_NN1 ,_, not_XX to_TO regulate_VVI your_APPGE working_JJ habits_NN2 to_II a_AT1 conventional_JJ norm_NN1 ._. 
Allow_VV0 for_IF unexpected_JJ breaks_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 days_NNT2 when_RRQ libraries_NN2 are_VBR closed_VVN ,_, delays_NN2 while_CS materials_NN2 arrive_VV0 through_II the_AT post_NN1 ,_, days_NNT2 when_RRQ you_PPY do_VD0 n't_XX feel_VVI like_II working_VVG ,_, etc_RA ._. 
And_CC create_VV0 breaks_NN2 deliberately_RR ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, you_PPY should_VM allow_VVI for_IF creating_VVG variation_NN1 in_II your_APPGE working_JJ patterns_NN2 ._. 
Read_VV0 for_IF a_AT1 while_NNT1 ,_, then_RT do_VD0 some_DD writing_NN1 or_CC some_DD research_NN1 browsing_VVG in_II a_AT1 library_NN1 ;_; this_DD1 can_VM reduce_VVI the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO strain_NN1 or_CC tiredness_NN1 with_IW long_JJ bouts_NN2 of_IO writing_NN1 ,_, something_PN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ particularly_RR important_JJ for_IF health_NN1 reasons_NN2 if_CS you_PPY work_VV0 at_II a_AT1 computer_NN1 ._. 
Remember_VV0 that_CST finishing_VVG off_RP (_( e.g._REX by_II adding_VVG footnotes_NN2 or_CC bibliographic_JJ references_NN2 )_) always_RR takes_VVZ longer_JJR than_CSN you_PPY anticipate_VV0 ,_, so_RR allow_VV0 enough_DD time_NNT1 for_IF this_DD1 ._. 
Be_VB0 careful_JJ with_IW deadlines_NN2 :_: some_DD are_VBR notional_JJ (_( and_CC extensions_NN2 are_VBR possible_JJ )_) ;_; others_NN2 are_VBR fixed_VVN and_CC absolute_JJ ,_, with_IW the_AT result_NN1 that_CST non-_JJ completion_NN1 on_II schedule_NN1 can_VM mean_VVI failure_NN1 ._. 
Check_VV0 the_AT rules_NN2 to_TO find_VVI out_RP which_DDQ of_IO these_DD2 your_APPGE deadline_NN1 is._NNU 2.11_MC SUMMARY_NN1 ,_, SUGGESTIONS_NN2 AND_CC EXERCISES_VVZ Summary_NN1 In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 we_PPIS2 have_VH0 shown_VVN how_RRQ writing_NN1 an_AT1 essay_NN1 depends_VVZ on_II the_AT manipulation_NN1 of_IO raw_JJ materials_NN2 collected_VVN for_IF the_AT purpose_NN1 ,_, including_II editions_NN2 of_IO literary_JJ works_NN ,_, critical_JJ essays_NN2 ,_, information_NN1 gathered_VVN from_II reference_NN1 sources_NN2 and_CC advice_NN1 sought_VVN from_II teachers_NN2 or_CC supervisors_NN2 ._. 
The_AT work_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG an_AT1 essay_NN1 is_VBZ greatly_RR reduced_VVN if_CS your_APPGE preparatory_JJ stages_NN2 are_VBR carried_VVN out_RP thoroughly_RR ._. 
This_DD1 involves_VVZ deciding_VVG what_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ you_PPY are_VBR looking_VVG for_IF before_CS you_PPY start_VV0 general_JJ reading_NN1 ,_, and_CC ,_, equally_RR important_JJ ,_, assessing_VVG why_RRQ you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO read_VVI particular_JJ works_NN or_CC sources_NN2 you_PPY intend_VV0 to_TO consult_VVI ._. 
Keeping_VVG clear_JJ and_CC concise_JJ notes_NN2 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 read_VVN enables_VVZ you_PPY to_TO organise_VVI your_APPGE essay_NN1 without_IW having_VHG to_TO refer_VVI constantly_RR back_RP to_II the_AT original_JJ sources_NN2 ._. 
Your_APPGE notes_NN2 form_VV0 a_AT1 bridge_NN1 between_II the_AT works_NN you_PPY are_VBR studying_VVG and_CC the_AT outline_NN1 and_CC early_JJ drafts_NN2 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR trying_VVG to_TO write_VVI ._. 
Specific_JJ suggestions_NN2 *_FU Decide_VV0 which_DDQ parts_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 to_TO focus_VVI on_RP particularly_RR (_( e.g._REX beginning_NN1 ,_, ending_VVG ,_, title_NN1 ,_, etc._RA )_) (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 32_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Make_VV0 an_AT1 informed_JJ choice_NN1 about_II which_DDQ version_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 to_TO use_VVI ;_; try_VV0 to_TO use_VVI a_AT1 critical_JJ edition_NN1 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 33_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Beware_VV0 of_IO quoting_VVG from_II secondary_JJ sources_NN2 ,_, particularly_RR from_II textbooks_NN2 (_( p._NNU 34_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Find_VV0 out_RP what_DDQ information_NN1 sources_NN2 are_VBR available_JJ to_II you_PPY ,_, and_CC be_VBI imaginative_JJ in_II how_RRQ you_PPY use_VV0 them_PPHO2 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 3440_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Look_NN1 for_IF ideas_NN2 on_II the_AT shelves_NN2 and_CC in_II the_AT catalogue_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE library_NN1 ,_, in_II bibliographies_NN2 ,_, in_II anthologies_NN2 and_CC also_RR in_II bookshops_NN2 and_CC publishers_NN2 '_GE catalogues_NN2 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 38_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Be_VBI open_JJ to_II chance_NN1 discoveries_NN2 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 38_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Do_VD0 n't_XX read_VVI everything_PN1 in_II the_AT same_DA way_NN1 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 3941_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Take_VV0 notes_NN2 ,_, but_CCB do_VD0 n't_XX necessarily_RR copy_VVI directly_RR from_II the_AT original_JJ when_CS you_PPY do_VD0 so_RR (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 412_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU When_RRQ you_PPY take_VV0 notes_NN2 ,_, keep_VV0 a_AT1 full_JJ record_NN1 of_IO all_DB sources_NN2 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 424_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Use_NN1 the_AT flexibility_NN1 of_IO computerised_JJ texts_NN2 and_CC search_NN1 techniques_NN2 if_CS you_PPY can_VM (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 456_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Take_VV0 the_AT initiative_NN1 and_CC negotiate_VV0 with_IW your_APPGE supervisor_NN1 for_IF the_AT most_RGT helpful_JJ arrangement_NN1 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 467_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Vary_VV0 your_APPGE working_JJ patterns_NN2 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 47_MC )_) ._. 
Exercises_NN2 (_( 1_MC1 )_) Choose_VV0 one_MC1 literary_JJ text_NN1 which_DDQ you_PPY might_VM work_VVI on_II which_DDQ is_VBZ representative_JJ ,_, plus_II one_PN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ well-known_JJ ,_, plus_II one_PN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ neglected_VVN (_( see_VV0 2.1_MC )_) ._. 
Explain_VV0 why_RRQ each_DD1 text_NN1 might_VM be_VBI interesting_JJ to_TO work_VVI on._NNU (_( 2_MC )_) &quot;_" Kitchen-sink_JJ drama_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ a_AT1 name_NN1 used_VVN for_IF a_AT1 particular_JJ group_NN1 of_IO plays_NN2 written_VVN in_II Britain_NP1 in_II the_AT late_JJ 1950s_MC2 and_CC 1960s_MC2 ._. 
Look_VV0 up_RP &quot;_" kitchen-sink_NN1 &quot;_" in_II the_AT Oxford_NP1 English_JJ Dictionary_NN1 (_( second_MD edition_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC explain_VV0 how_RRQ the_AT entry_NN1 could_VM help_VVI you_PPY put_VVI together_RL an_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II kitchen-sink_JJ drama._NNU (_( 3_MC )_) Pick_VV0 a_AT1 brief_JJ passage_NN1 from_II a_AT1 poem_NN1 you_PPY believe_VV0 to_TO be_VBI famous_JJ ._. 
Underline_VV0 what_DDQ seem_VV0 to_II you_PPY to_TO be_VBI the_AT main_JJ or_CC key_JJ words_NN2 in_II the_AT passage_NN1 ,_, including_II all_DB names_NN2 and_CC any_DD words_NN2 beginning_VVG with_IW capital_NN1 letters_NN2 ._. 
Look_VV0 these_DD2 words_NN2 up_RP in_II the_AT Oxford_NP1 English_JJ Dictionary_NN1 (_( complete_JJ version_NN1 ,_, not_XX the_AT compact_NN1 or_CC shorter_JJR version_NN1 )_) ;_; in_II Brewer_NP1 's_GE Dictionary_NN1 of_IO Phrase_NN1 and_CC Fable_NN1 ;_; in_II the_AT Concise_JJ Oxford_NP1 Dictionary_NN1 of_IO English_JJ Literature_NN1 ;_; in_II the_AT Encyclopedia_NP1 Brittanica_NP1 ;_; and_CC in_II whichever_DDQV other_JJ relevant_JJ reference_NN1 sources_NN2 are_VBR available_JJ to_II you_PPY ._. 
Now_RT imagine_VV0 you_PPY are_VBR an_AT1 editor_NN1 ,_, annotating_VVG the_AT passage_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 student_NN1 edition_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA you_PPY add_VV0 explanatory_JJ notes_NN2 ,_, offer_VV0 all_DB the_AT help_NN1 you_PPY would_VM hope_VVI to_TO find_VVI ,_, as_CSA a_AT1 reader_NN1 ,_, in_II an_AT1 annotated_JJ edition_NN1 if_CS you_PPY yourself_PPX1 were_VBDR studying_VVG this_DD1 particular_JJ text_NN1 for_IF the_AT first_MD time._NNU (_( 4_MC )_) Pick_VV0 a_AT1 work_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 recently_RR read_VVN or_CC are_VBR in_II the_AT process_NN1 of_IO reading_NN1 ._. 
Look_VV0 up_RP ,_, in_II all_DB the_AT reference_NN1 works_VVZ available_JJ to_II you_PPY ,_, entries_NN2 for_IF :_: the_AT author_NN1 the_AT title_NN1 of_IO the_AT work_NN1 the_AT main_JJ characters_NN2 in_II the_AT work_NN1 the_AT places_NN2 referred_VVN to_II any_DD dates_NN2 referred_VVN to_II ._. 
Go_VV0 through_II the_AT list_NN1 ,_, asessing_VVG what_DDQ contributions_NN2 (_( if_CS any_DD )_) each_DD1 new_JJ piece_NN1 of_IO information_NN1 makes_VVZ to_II your_APPGE understanding_NN1 of_IO the_AT work._NNU (_( 5_MC )_) Make_VV0 a_AT1 sample_NN1 set_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" notes_NN2 &quot;_" on_II a_AT1 critical_JJ work_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 recently_RR read_VVN to_TO help_VVI with_IW an_AT1 essay_NN1 task_NN1 ,_, laying_VVG out_RP your_APPGE notes_NN2 in_II two_MC columns_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT left_JJ column_NN1 ,_, put_VV0 what_DDQ you_PPY consider_VV0 to_TO be_VBI all_DB the_AT main_JJ points_NN2 made_VVN in_II the_AT book_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT right_JJ column_NN1 ,_, note_VV0 down_RP all_DB the_AT points_NN2 which_DDQ would_VM be_VBI relevant_JJ to_II or_CC useful_JJ in_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 in_RR21 particular_RR22 ._. 
Compare_VV0 the_AT two_MC columns._NNU (_( 6_MC )_) Draw_VV0 up_RP a_AT1 contract_NN1 which_DDQ you_PPY think_VV0 would_VM represent_VVI the_AT ideal_JJ division_NN1 of_IO responsibilities_NN2 between_II yourself_PPX1 and_CC your_APPGE supervisor_NN1 ._. 
Discuss_VV0 it_PPH1 with_IW your_APPGE supervisor_NN1 ._. 
The_AT form_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE argument_NN1 When_CS you_PPY write_VV0 an_AT1 essay_NN1 what_DDQ you_PPY typically_RR do_VD0 (_( put_VV0 at_II its_APPGE simplest_JJT )_) is_VBZ gather_NN1 material_NN1 and_CC then_RT arrange_VV0 it_PPH1 ._. 
In_II Chapter_NN1 2_MC we_PPIS2 looked_VVD at_II sources_NN2 of_IO information_NN1 and_CC at_II how_RRQ to_TO gather_VVI material_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 we_PPIS2 focus_VV0 on_II how_RRQ you_PPY arrange_VV0 your_APPGE gathered_JJ material_NN1 in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 argument_NN1 ._. 
In_II Chapters_NN2 4_MC and_CC 5_MC we_PPIS2 consider_VV0 in_RP more_DAR detail_NN1 the_AT writing_NN1 techniques_NN2 through_II which_DDQ you_PPY can_VM present_VVI to_II best_JJT effect_NN1 the_AT kinds_NN2 of_IO argument_NN1 described_VVD here._NNU 3.1_MC ESSAY_NN1 TYPES_NN2 As_CSA we_PPIS2 discussed_VVD in_II Chapter_NN1 1_MC1 ,_, the_AT underlying_JJ purpose_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG essays_NN2 in_II literary_JJ studies_NN2 is_VBZ to_TO argue_VVI a_AT1 case_NN1 ._. 
In_II achieving_VVG this_DD1 end_NN1 ,_, essays_NN2 follow_VV0 certain_JJ general_JJ patterns_NN2 of_IO development_NN1 and_CC direction_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ are_VBR definable_JJ in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT focus_NN1 they_PPHS2 give_VV0 to_II their_APPGE subject_NN1 matter_NN1 and_CC the_AT different_JJ modes_NN2 of_IO argument_NN1 they_PPHS2 adopt_VV0 ._. 
We_PPIS2 now_RT consider_VV0 how_RRQ the_AT substance_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 different_JJ sorts_NN2 of_IO essay_NN1 is_VBZ organised_VVN and_CC presented_VVN ,_, starting_VVG with_IW techniques_NN2 for_IF commenting_VVG on_II a_AT1 given_JJ passage_NN1 ._. 
Commenting_VVG on_II a_AT1 given_JJ passage_NN1 In_II writing_VVG on_II a_AT1 given_JJ passage_NN1 often_RR in_II31 response_II32 to_II33 a_AT1 general_JJ question_NN1 in_II a_AT1 &quot;_" Practical_JJ Criticism_NN1 &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" Commentary_NN1 and_CC Analysis_NN1 &quot;_" course_NN1 it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI helpful_JJ ,_, in_II considering_VVG what_DDQ to_TO say_VVI ,_, to_TO organise_VVI your_APPGE answer_NN1 around_II the_AT following_JJ questions_NN2 :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) Who_PNQS is_VBZ the_AT speaker_NN1 ?_? 
What_DDQ sort_NN1 of_IO person_NN1 (_( or_CC creature_NN1 )_) appears_VVZ to_TO be_VBI speaking_VVG in_II the_AT text_NN1 ?_? 
How_RRQ do_VD0 we_PPIS2 know_VVI ?_? 
What_DDQ words_NN2 ,_, phrases_NN2 or_CC markers_NN2 of_IO attitude_NN1 indicate_VV0 this_DD1 ?_? (_( b_ZZ1 )_) Who_PNQS does_VDZ the_AT passage_NN1 seem_VVI to_TO be_VBI addressing_VVG ?_? 
Who_NP1 (_( or_CC what_DDQ sort_NN1 of_IO audience_NN1 )_) must_VM the_AT implied_JJ addressee(s)_NN2 be_VBI ,_, so_RG far_RR as_CSA we_PPIS2 can_VM tell_VVI from_II the_AT passage_NN1 itself_PPX1 ?_? (_( c_ZZ1 )_) What_DDQ theme_NN1 or_CC general_JJ issue_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT passage_NN1 concerned_JJ with_IW ?_? 
How_RGQ far_RR is_VBZ a_AT1 specific_JJ position_NN1 or_CC attitude_NN1 taken_VVN towards_II that_DD1 theme_NN1 (_( which_DDQ may_VM be_VBI anything_PN1 from_II a_AT1 conventional_JJ topic_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 lost_JJ love_NN1 ,_, to_II an_AT1 apparently_RR unresolvable_JJ philosophical_JJ question_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 the_AT meaning_NN1 of_IO life_NN1 )_) ?_? (_( d_ZZ1 )_) What_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT overall_JJ function_NN1 or_CC effect_NN1 of_IO the_AT passage_NN1 ?_? 
Does_VDZ it_PPH1 seek_VVI to_TO persuade_VVI ,_, command_VV0 ,_, inform_VV0 ,_, satirise_VV0 ,_, impress_VV0 ,_, amuse_VV0 ?_? (_( e_ZZ1 )_) How_RRQ would_VM you_PPY describe_VVI the_AT style_NN1 of_IO the_AT passage_NN1 ?_? 
Is_VBZ it_PPH1 colloquial_JJ ,_, elevated_VVD ,_, ornate_JJ ,_, comic_NN1 ,_, ironic_JJ ,_, archaic_JJ ,_, conventionally_RR poetic_JJ ,_, etc._RA ?_? 
Which_DDQ particular_JJ words_NN2 or_CC phrases_NN2 indicate_VV0 this_DD1 most_RGT clearly_RR ?_? (_( f_ZZ1 )_) Are_VBR there_EX any_DD noticeable_JJ changes_NN2 of_IO mood_NN1 (_( or_CC direction_NN1 in_II the_AT narrative_NN1 ,_, if_CS there_EX is_VBZ one_MC1 )_) ?_? 
Does_VDZ the_AT passage_NN1 switch_VVI from_II one_MC1 style_NN1 to_II another_DD1 ,_, and_CC if_CS so_RR why_RRQ ?_? (_( g_ZZ1 )_) How_RRQ far_RR is_VBZ the_AT passage_NN1 supposed_JJ to_TO be_VBI realistic_JJ ?_? 
Is_VBZ it_PPH1 just_RR21 about_RR22 what_DDQ it_PPH1 describes_VVZ ?_? 
Or_CC is_VBZ it_PPH1 representative_JJ of_IO something_PN1 more_RGR general_JJ ?_? 
Is_VBZ it_PPH1 symbolic_JJ of_IO a_AT1 theme_NN1 or_CC topic_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ not_XX itself_PPX1 explicitly_RR mentioned_VVN in_II the_AT passage_NN1 ?_? 
Is_VBZ it_PPH1 allegorical_JJ (_( i.e._REX each_DD1 character_NN1 or_CC event_NN1 in_II the_AT passage_NN1 stands_VVZ for_IF something_PN1 else_RR in_II a_AT1 parallel_JJ story_NN1 )_) ?_? (_( h_ZZ1 )_) What_DDQ effect_NN1 does_VDZ the_AT passage_NN1 have_VHI on_II you_PPY ?_? 
And_CC would_VM it_PPH1 be_VBI likely_JJ to_TO have_VHI a_AT1 significantly_RR different_JJ effect_NN1 on_II other_JJ readers_NN2 (_( e.g._REX readers_NN2 from_II a_AT1 different_JJ historical_JJ period_NN1 ,_, different_JJ class_NN1 ,_, different_JJ country_NN1 ,_, different_JJ gender_NN1 or_CC ethnic_JJ group_NN1 ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) ?_? 
There_EX are_VBR many_DA2 aspects_NN2 of_IO any_DD given_JJ passage_NN1 to_TO describe_VVI besides_II these_DD2 ._. 
But_CCB such_DA a_AT1 checklist_NN1 of_IO questions_NN2 can_VM be_VBI a_AT1 helpful_JJ prompt_NN1 if_CS you_PPY are_VBR faced_VVN with_IW a_AT1 passage_NN1 and_CC can_VM not_XX find_VVI a_AT1 place_NN1 to_TO start_VVI ._. 
Beginning_VVG with_IW one_MC1 or_CC more_DAR of_IO these_DD2 questions_NN2 is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO carry_VVI you_PPY into_II other_JJ ,_, new_JJ areas_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE own_DA ._. 
Analysing_VVG and_CC interpreting_VVG Beyond_II answering_VVG basic_JJ questions_NN2 of_IO the_AT kind_NN1 listed_VVD above_RL ,_, the_AT next_MD stage_NN1 of_IO analysing_VVG a_AT1 text_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO investigate_VVI its_APPGE patterning_NN1 or_CC STRUCTURE_NN1 ._. 
Cases_NN2 of_IO interesting_JJ structure_NN1 might_VM include_VVI a_AT1 rhyme_NN1 pattern_NN1 ,_, an_AT1 unusually_RR high_JJ proportion_NN1 of_IO adjectives_NN2 ,_, or_CC a_AT1 particular_JJ type_NN1 of_IO narrative_NN1 ._. 
Every_AT1 analysis_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR to_II some_DD extent_NN1 an_AT1 interpretation_NN1 ;_; so_RR if_CS for_REX21 example_REX22 you_PPY choose_VV0 to_TO summarise_VVI a_AT1 narrative_NN1 ,_, you_PPY will_VM ,_, by_II selection_NN1 and_CC emphasis_NN1 ,_, be_VBI interpreting_VVG what_DDQ the_AT most_RGT important_JJ incidents_NN2 and_CC characters_NN2 are_VBR ._. 
Analysis_NN1 and_CC interpretation_NN1 of_IO structures_NN2 in_II a_AT1 text_NN1 are_VBR useful_JJ if_CS you_PPY can_VM make_VVI something_PN1 of_IO them_PPHO2 if_CS ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, you_PPY can_VM say_VVI something_PN1 new_JJ on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO having_VHG identified_VVN a_AT1 rhyme_NN1 pattern_NN1 ._. 
Typically_RR ,_, you_PPY use_VV0 an_AT1 analysis_NN1 or_CC description_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 to_TO claim_VVI some_DD kind_NN1 of_IO connection_NN1 between_II the_AT features_NN2 analysed_VVN and_CC something_PN1 else_RR about_II the_AT text_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 its_APPGE meaning_NN1 ,_, its_APPGE effect_NN1 on_II a_AT1 reader_NN1 ,_, how_RRQ good_JJ it_PPH1 is_VBZ ,_, or_CC its_APPGE historical_JJ origins_NN2 ._. 
In_II most_DAT cases_NN2 the_AT connection_NN1 is_VBZ one_PN1 between_II observation_NN1 (_( of_IO structure_NN1 )_) and_CC response_NN1 (_( your_APPGE interpretation_NN1 )_) ._. 
Without_IW observations_NN2 ,_, responses_NN2 are_VBR mere_JJ impressions_NN2 ._. 
Without_IW responses_NN2 or_CC interpretation_NN1 ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, observations_NN2 are_VBR unworked-out_JJ descriptions_NN2 ._. 
In_RL21 between_RL22 ,_, there_EX are_VBR different_JJ strengths_NN2 of_IO connection_NN1 between_II these_DD2 two_MC aspects_NN2 of_IO reading_NN1 ,_, ranging_VVG from_II CAUSATION_NN1 ,_, through_II CORRELATION_NN1 ,_, to_II COINCIDENCE_NN1 ._. 
Consider_VV0 a_AT1 simple_JJ example_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY analyse_VV0 a_AT1 poem_NN1 as_CSA having_VHG an_AT1 especially_RR regular_JJ rhyme_NN1 scheme_NN1 ;_; you_PPY also_RR find_VV0 that_CST the_AT poem_NN1 makes_VVZ you_PPY feel_VVI cheerful_JJ ._. 
You_PPY now_RT try_VV0 to_TO connect_VVI these_DD2 two_MC perceptions_NN2 ,_, by_II saying_VVG that_CST (_( a_ZZ1 )_) the_AT rhyme_NN1 scheme_NN1 causes_VVZ the_AT cheerfulness_NN1 ;_; or_CC (_( b_ZZ1 )_) there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT rhyme_NN1 scheme_NN1 and_CC the_AT cheerfulness_NN1 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ one_MC1 of_IO correlation_NN1 ;_; or_CC (_( c_ZZ1 )_) the_AT regular_JJ rhyme_NN1 scheme_NN1 is_VBZ connected_VVN with_IW the_AT cheerfulness_NN1 because_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR both_RR caused_VVN by_II something_PN1 else_RR (_( such_II21 as_II22 the_AT genre_NN1 or_CC subject_NN1 matter_NN1 of_IO the_AT poem_NN1 ,_, perhaps_RR )_) ;_; or_CC (_( d_ZZ1 )_) there_EX is_VBZ in_II your_APPGE view_NN1 no_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT rhyme_NN1 scheme_NN1 and_CC the_AT feeling_NN1 ,_, and_CC they_PPHS2 coincide_VV0 without_RL there_EX being_VBG a_AT1 causal_JJ or_CC correlative_JJ relation_NN1 between_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
Coincidence_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT least_RGT interesting_JJ of_IO the_AT three_MC relationships_NN2 ;_; it_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR the_AT most_RGT common_JJ ._. 
Causation_NN1 ,_, conversely_RR ,_, is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI the_AT most_RGT interesting_JJ ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR the_AT most_RGT difficult_JJ to_TO demonstrate_VVI ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ because_CS ,_, with_IW a_AT1 literary_JJ text_NN1 ,_, what_DDQ is_VBZ caused_VVN is_VBZ often_RR inside_II your_APPGE head_NN1 :_: an_AT1 emotional_JJ response_NN1 or_CC an_AT1 impression_NN1 of_IO meaning_NN1 ._. 
While_CS such_DA states_NN2 are_VBR central_JJ to_II literary_JJ studies_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ difficult_JJ to_TO describe_VVI them_PPHO2 precisely_RR or_CC effectively_RR ;_; and_CC for_IF this_DD1 reason_NN1 ,_, although_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR of_IO great_JJ interest_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR also_RR inevitably_RR weak_JJ points_NN2 in_II your_APPGE argumentation_NN1 ._. 
Descriptive_JJ essays_NN2 Not_XX all_DB essays_NN2 are_VBR discussions_NN2 (_( or_CC analyses_NN2 )_) of_IO individual_NN1 ,_, given_JJ passages_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO more_RGR general_JJ or_CC abstract_JJ essays_NN2 (_( on_II whole_JJ works_NN ,_, on_II authors_NN2 or_CC on_II critical_JJ issues_NN2 )_) ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO find_VVI other_JJ means_NN of_IO organising_VVG an_AT1 argument_NN1 though_CS some_DD of_IO the_AT means_NN also_RR turn_VV0 out_RP to_TO be_VBI applicable_JJ when_CS looking_VVG at_II individual_JJ passages_NN2 ._. 
The_AT simplest_JJT form_NN1 of_IO general_JJ essay_NN1 organisation_NN1 involves_VVZ just_RR the_AT presentation_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 sequential_JJ commentary_NN1 or_CC description_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB what_DDQ gives_VVZ us_PPIO2 the_AT sequence_NN1 ?_? 
One_MC1 common_JJ sequence_NN1 is_VBZ chronology_NN1 (_( e.g._REX the_AT development_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 novelist_NN1 's_GE concerns_NN2 throughout_II her_APPGE lifetime_NNT1 )_) ._. 
But_CCB there_EX are_VBR other_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO sequence_NN1 ,_, too_RR ,_, such_II21 as_II22 a_AT1 text-by-text_JJ commentary_NN1 on_II works_NN in_II a_AT1 collection_NN1 (_( e.g._REX Lyrical_JJ Ballads_NN2 )_) ;_; or_CC you_PPY might_VM recount_VVI events_NN2 in_II a_AT1 narrative_NN1 ,_, telling_VVG your_APPGE reader_NN1 the_AT story_NN1 in_II the_AT order_NN1 in_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 happens_VVZ ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ ,_, however_RR ,_, a_AT1 difficulty_NN1 with_IW the_AT mode_NN1 of_IO organisation_NN1 which_DDQ follows_VVZ an_AT1 already_RR existing_JJ sequence_NN1 :_: it_PPH1 lacks_VVZ anything_PN1 by_II31 way_II32 of_II33 your_APPGE own_DA analysis_NN1 or_CC commentary_NN1 ._. 
The_AT materials_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 collected_VVN together_RL (_( the_AT events_NN2 in_II the_AT story_NN1 ,_, the_AT biography_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 author_NN1 ,_, etc._RA )_) are_VBR simply_RR presented_VVN in_II the_AT same_DA order_NN1 in_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 originally_RR occur_VV0 ;_; and_CC this_DD1 generally_RR produces_VVZ uninteresting_JJ and_CC unoriginal_JJ essays_NN2 ._. 
Essays_NN2 which_DDQ describe_VV0 their_APPGE material_NN1 sequentially_RR in_II a_AT1 list-form_NN1 resemble_VV0 commentaries_NN2 on_II prescribed_JJ passages_NN2 which_DDQ work_VV0 through_II the_AT text_NN1 line_NN1 by_II line_NN1 ._. 
The_AT problem_NN1 in_II both_DB2 cases_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST no_AT process_NN1 of_IO reworking_VVG ,_, assimilation_NN1 or_CC re-presentation_NN1 has_VHZ taken_VVN place_NN1 :_: there_EX is_VBZ little_RR added_VVN by_II you_PPY ._. 
Using_VVG the_AT same_DA information_NN1 available_JJ for_IF a_AT1 sequential_JJ description_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO organise_VVI an_AT1 essay_NN1 in_II more_RGR interesting_JJ ways_NN2 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM demonstrate_VVI a_AT1 process_NN1 of_IO reordering_VVG ,_, and_CC so_RR your_APPGE own_DA contribution_NN1 ,_, by_II reshaping_VVG the_AT material_NN1 around_II an_AT1 overall_JJ organizing_JJ principle_NN1 or_CC generalisation_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, a_AT1 classificatory_JJ system_NN1 imposed_VVN on_II the_AT material_NN1 divides_VVZ it_PPH1 into_II abstract_JJ categories_NN2 (_( e.g._REX into_II a_AT1 chronology_NN1 on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO definable_JJ periods_NN2 ;_; or_CC into_II a_AT1 typology_NN1 ,_, or_CC system_NN1 of_IO sorting_VVG on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO formal_JJ likeness_NN1 and_CC difference_NN1 )_) ._. 
Any_DD classificatory_JJ system_NN1 you_PPY use_VV0 to_TO organise_VVI your_APPGE essay_NN1 has_VHZ to_TO be_VBI explained_VVN ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 (_( e.g._REX divisions_NN2 between_II historical_JJ periods_NN2 need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI discussed_VVN and_CC justified_JJ )_) ._. 
But_CCB introducing_VVG a_AT1 classificatory_JJ element_NN1 almost_RR always_RR radically_RR improves_VVZ a_AT1 descriptive_JJ essay_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 enables_VVZ you_PPY to_TO get_VVI straight_RR into_II analysis_NN1 and_CC debate_NN1 ,_, leaving_VVG basic_JJ description_NN1 to_II passages_NN2 of_IO supporting_JJ illustration_NN1 ;_; and_CC it_PPH1 emphasises_VVZ your_APPGE point_NN1 of_IO view_NN1 or_CC commentary_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 mere_JJ repetition_NN1 of_IO materials_NN2 possibly_RR already_RR available_JJ to_II your_APPGE reader_NN1 in_II their_APPGE original_JJ form_NN1 ._. 
(_( Always_RR ask_VV0 yourself_PPX1 :_: why_RRQ should_VM anyone_PN1 read_VVI my_APPGE essay_NN1 ,_, when_CS they_PPHS2 could_VM read_VVI the_AT original_JJ ?_? )_) 
One_MC1 fruitful_JJ form_NN1 of_IO classification_NN1 starts_VVZ from_II a_AT1 keyword_NN1 (_( sometimes_RT a_AT1 historical_JJ term_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" Restoration_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; a_AT1 conceptual_JJ term_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" nature_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; or_CC a_AT1 genre_NN1 term_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" tragedy_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
Consider_VV0 the_AT case_NN1 of_IO tragedy_NN1 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY are_VBR writing_VVG on_II this_DD1 topic_NN1 you_PPY can_VM work_VVI out_RP a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO different_JJ sorts_NN2 of_IO tragedy_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 prompts_VVZ you_PPY to_TO do_VDI something_PN1 else_RR ,_, namely_REX to_TO work_VVI out_RP the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT list_NN1 :_: why_RRQ all_DB the_AT different_JJ sorts_NN2 of_IO tragedy_NN1 are_VBR all_DB called_VVN tragedy_NN1 ,_, what_DDQ the_AT historical_JJ sequence_NN1 and_CC links_VVZ between_II them_PPHO2 are_VBR ,_, etc_RA ._. 
Classification_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR useful_JJ when_CS you_PPY are_VBR working_VVG with_IW a_AT1 text_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ not_XX been_VBN extensively_RR discussed_VVN ,_, but_CCB which_DDQ relates_VVZ to_II classifications_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 been_VBN discussed_VVN ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, if_CS you_PPY choose_VV0 to_TO write_VVI an_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II the_AT novel_NN1 A_AT1 Very_RG Quiet_JJ Street_NN1 by_II the_AT contemporary_JJ Glasgow_NP1 author_NN1 Frank_NP1 Kuppner_NP1 ,_, you_PPY may_VM not_XX find_VVI it_PPH1 easy_JJ to_TO get_VVI any_DD critical_JJ work_NN1 either_RR on_II the_AT book_NN1 itself_PPX1 or_CC on_II this_DD1 writer_NN1 (_( since_CS no_AT books_NN2 may_VM have_VHI been_VBN written_VVN about_II him_PPHO1 )_) ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY can_VM work_VVI out_RP how_RRQ Kuppner_NP1 's_GE novel_NN1 would_VM fit_VVI into_II various_JJ classificatory_JJ systems_NN2 ,_, and_CC then_RT discuss_VV0 the_AT novel_NN1 from_II this_DD1 point_NN1 of_IO view_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM try_VVI to_TO work_VVI out_RP whether_CSW it_PPH1 is_VBZ autobiography_NN1 or_CC murder_NN1 mystery_NN1 and_CC how_RRQ it_PPH1 works_VVZ within_II these_DD2 genre_NN1 classifications_NN2 ._. 
Or_CC you_PPY can_VM classify_VVI the_AT novel_NN1 according_II21 to_II22 where_RRQ it_PPH1 was_VBDZ written_VVN ,_, &quot;_" West_ND1 of_IO Scotland_NP1 &quot;_" ,_, and_CC think_VV0 about_II it_PPH1 as_II an_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG from_II this_DD1 locality_NN1 ._. 
Classifications_NN2 are_VBR often_RR a_AT1 basis_NN1 for_IF finding_VVG correlations_NN2 ._. 
As_II an_AT1 illustration_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 ,_, consider_VV0 the_AT following_JJ project_NN1 :_: An_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II metaphors_NN2 used_VVN in_II advertisements_NN2 This_DD1 imaginary_JJ project_NN1 might_VM begin_VVI with_IW an_AT1 analysis_NN1 of_IO the_AT metaphors_NN2 used_VVN in_II ten_MC advertisements_NN2 ._. 
We_PPIS2 decide_VV0 to_TO look_VVI for_IF a_AT1 connection_NN1 between_II types_NN2 of_IO advert_NN1 and_CC types_NN2 of_IO metaphor_NN1 ._. 
In_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO do_VDI this_DD1 ,_, we_PPIS2 classify_VV0 the_AT adverts_NN2 into_II types_NN2 &quot;_" aimed_VVN at_II women_NN2 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" aimed_VVN at_II men_NN2 &quot;_" (_( we_PPIS2 could_VM instead_RR have_VHI classified_VVN them_PPHO2 as_CSA &quot;_" television_NN1 &quot;_" versus_II &quot;_" magazine_NN1 &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" Italian_NN1 &quot;_" versus_II &quot;_" British_JJ &quot;_" ,_, etc._RA ;_; and_CC if_CS our_APPGE first_MD attempt_NN1 to_TO classify_VVI gets_VVZ us_PPIO2 nowhere_RL we_PPIS2 might_VM try_VVI one_MC1 or_CC more_DAR of_IO these_DD2 alternatives_NN2 at_II a_AT1 later_JJR stage_NN1 )_) ._. 
We_PPIS2 then_RT also_RR classify_VV0 the_AT metaphors_NN2 into_II types_NN2 :_: &quot;_" metaphors_NN2 where_RRQ an_AT1 object_NN1 is_VBZ treated_VVN like_II a_AT1 part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 body_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" other_JJ types_NN2 of_IO metaphor_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
We_PPIS2 are_VBR now_RT in_II a_AT1 position_NN1 to_TO ask_VVI whether_CSW one_MC1 type_NN1 of_IO advert_NN1 typically_RR uses_VVZ one_MC1 type_NN1 of_IO metaphor_NN1 ._. 
If_CS the_AT answer_NN1 is_VBZ &quot;_" yes_UH &quot;_" ,_, then_RT we_PPIS2 have_VH0 learnt_VVN something_PN1 (_( a_AT1 correlation_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ may_VM turn_VVI out_RP to_TO be_VBI an_AT1 instance_NN1 of_IO causation_NN1 )_) ;_; and_CC in_II writing_VVG it_PPH1 down_RP we_PPIS2 will_VM be_VBI saying_VVG something_PN1 new_JJ ._. 
If_CS ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, the_AT answer_NN1 is_VBZ &quot;_" no_UH &quot;_" ,_, then_RT we_PPIS2 eliminate_VV0 this_DD1 line_NN1 of_IO enquiry_NN1 ,_, and_CC perhaps_RR try_VV0 one_MC1 of_IO the_AT alternative_JJ classifications_NN2 of_IO adverts_NN2 and_CC metaphors_NN2 we_PPIS2 suggested_VVD above_RL ._. 
Argumentative_JJ essays_NN2 In_II this_DD1 mode_NN1 of_IO organising_VVG an_AT1 essay_NN1 ,_, you_PPY divide_VV0 the_AT issue_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR addressing_VVG into_II conflicting_JJ positions_NN2 ,_, or_CC points_NN2 of_IO view_NN1 ,_, or_CC sides_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 argument_NN1 ._. 
So_RR the_AT structure_NN1 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 becomes_VVZ a_AT1 comparison_NN1 of_IO claims_NN2 made_VVN from_II differing_JJ viewpoints_NN2 ,_, assessing_VVG the_AT validity_NN1 and_CC appropriateness_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 ._. 
Sometimes_RT you_PPY can_VM organise_VVI your_APPGE essay_NN1 around_II an_AT1 already_RR existing_JJ critical_JJ controversy_NN1 (_( e.g._REX between_II established_JJ schools_NN2 of_IO thought_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" New_JJ Criticism_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" Post-structuralism_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
In_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO accentuate_VVI the_AT general_JJ significance_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE arguments_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI helpful_JJ to_TO generalise_VVI from_II individuals_NN2 to_II movements_NN2 ,_, or_CC types_NN2 of_IO thought_NN1 (_( you_PPY discuss_VV0 Leavisism_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 Leavis_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 in_RR21 particular_RR22 )_) ._. 
In_II presenting_VVG ideas_NN2 of_IO the_AT school_NN1 or_CC movement_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, you_PPY will_VM need_VVI to_TO be_VBI careful_JJ about_II distinguishing_VVG your_APPGE own_DA words_NN2 from_II your_APPGE paraphrase_NN1 of_IO the_AT positions_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR representing_VVG ._. 
Be_VB0 explicit_JJ at_II the_AT point_NN1 where_RRQ you_PPY leave_VV0 off_RP summarising_VVG and_CC your_APPGE own_DA words_NN2 take_VV0 over_RP (_( see_VV0 below_RL ,_, Chapter_NN1 5_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 1057_MC ,_, for_IF techniques_NN2 which_DDQ enable_VV0 you_PPY to_TO do_VDI this_DD1 )_) ._. 
You_PPY will_VM also_RR need_VVI ,_, in_II this_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO essay_NN1 ,_, to_TO signal_VVI that_CST you_PPY are_VBR aware_JJ of_IO the_AT dangers_NN2 of_IO reductionism_NN1 :_: that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, of_IO simplifying_VVG the_AT work_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 school_NN1 or_CC movement_NN1 until_CS it_PPH1 no_RR21 longer_RR22 adequately_RR represents_VVZ what_DDQ anyone_PN1 associated_VVN with_IW it_PPH1 would_VM recognise_VVI or_CC subscribe_VVI to_II ._. 
Experimenting_VVG A_AT1 literary_JJ experiment_NN1 changes_VVZ a_AT1 text_NN1 and_CC looks_VVZ at_II how_RRQ the_AT change_NN1 affects_VVZ a_AT1 reader_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, you_PPY choose_VV0 a_AT1 narrative_NN1 ,_, then_RT imagine_VV0 a_AT1 different_JJ ending_NN1 for_IF it_PPH1 ,_, and_CC think_VV0 what_DDQ implications_NN2 this_DD1 would_VM have_VHI ._. 
Such_DA an_AT1 &quot;_" experiment_NN1 in_II your_APPGE head_NN1 &quot;_" focuses_VVZ on_II the_AT writer_NN1 's_GE actual_JJ decision_NN1 about_II an_AT1 ending_NN1 ,_, but_CCB also_RR begins_VVZ to_TO tell_VVI you_PPY about_II how_RRQ endings_NN2 work_VV0 in_RR21 general_RR22 ._. 
As_CSA in_II this_DD1 simple_JJ mental_JJ experiment_NN1 of_IO the_AT narrative_JJ ending_NN1 ,_, most_DAT experiments_NN2 in_II literary_JJ studies_NN2 involve_VV0 taking_VVG related_JJ versions_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 and_CC seeing_VVG what_DDQ effects_NN2 on_II a_AT1 reader_NN1 the_AT differences_NN2 between_II them_PPHO2 have_VH0 ._. 
The_AT selected_JJ texts_NN2 (_( or_CC versions_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 single_JJ text_NN1 )_) will_VM be_VBI alike_RR in_II many_DA2 respects_NN2 ,_, yet_RR different_JJ in_II perhaps_RR just_RR one_MC1 basic_JJ way_NN1 called_VVN the_AT VARIABLE_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI looking_VVG for_IF the_AT relation_NN1 between_II the_AT variable_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT text_NN1 (_( called_VVN the_AT INDEPENDENT_JJ VARIABLE_NN1 because_CS you_PPY are_VBR manipulating_VVG it_PPH1 by_II making_VVG changes_NN2 )_) and_CC the_AT variation_NN1 in_II the_AT response_NN1 of_IO the_AT reader_NN1 (_( called_VVN the_AT DEPENDENT_JJ VARIABLE_NN1 ,_, because_CS it_PPH1 depends_VVZ on_II the_AT variation_NN1 ,_, or_CC changes_NN2 ,_, made_VVN to_II the_AT text_NN1 )_) ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT crucial_JJ rules_NN2 about_II doing_VDG an_AT1 experiment_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO report_VVI it_PPH1 fully_RR ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI repeated_VVN if_CS necessary_JJ ._. 
You_PPY also_RR need_VV0 to_TO control_VVI the_AT circumstances_NN2 in_II which_DDQ you_PPY conduct_VV0 the_AT experiment_NN1 ,_, in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO eliminate_VVI ,_, as_RG far_RR as_CSA possible_JJ ,_, conflicting_JJ or_CC distracting_VVG variables_NN2 (_( such_II21 as_II22 tiredness_NN1 ,_, lateness_NN1 in_II the_AT day_NNT1 ,_, unequal_JJ difficulty_NN1 of_IO the_AT texts_NN2 used_VVD ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) ._. 
If_CS your_APPGE experiment_NN1 involves_VVZ other_JJ people_NN (_( e.g._REX if_CS you_PPY are_VBR comparing_VVG different_JJ readers_NN2 '_GE responses_NN2 )_) ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO consider_VVI ethical_JJ issues_NN2 which_DDQ arise_VV0 ,_, including_II (_( a_ZZ1 )_) getting_VVG their_APPGE permission_NN1 to_TO use_VVI the_AT results_NN2 ;_; (_( b_ZZ1 )_) showing_VVG them_PPHO2 the_AT results_NN2 and_CC explaining_VVG them_PPHO2 ;_; (_( c_ZZ1 )_) not_XX using_VVG their_APPGE names_NN2 when_CS you_PPY report_VV0 the_AT experiment_NN1 (_( even_CS21 if_CS22 they_PPHS2 have_VH0 given_VVN permission_NN1 for_IF this_DD1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ unlikely_JJ to_TO be_VBI any_DD point_NN1 )_) ;_; (_( d_ZZ1 )_) the_AT ethical_JJ problem_NN1 that_CST sometimes_RT an_AT1 experiment_NN1 is_VBZ best_RRT conducted_VVN if_CS the_AT test_NN1 subjects_NN2 do_VD0 n't_XX know_VVI what_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ for_IF ;_; that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, if_CS there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 &quot;_" secret_JJ agenda_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
If_CS your_APPGE experiment_NN1 involves_VVZ large_JJ groups_NN2 of_IO informants_NN2 ,_, then_RT you_PPY also_RR need_VV0 to_TO think_VVI about_II the_AT significance_NN1 of_IO numerical_JJ results_NN2 you_PPY may_VM produce_VVI ;_; and_CC for_IF this_DD1 ,_, guidebooks_NN2 about_II experimentation_NN1 and_CC the_AT use_NN1 of_IO statistics_NN may_VM be_VBI needed_VVN (_( see_VV0 sections_NN2 1_MC1 and_CC 4_MC of_IO the_AT Booklist_NN1 for_IF suggestions_NN2 )_) ._. 
Providing_VVG contexts_NN2 for_IF texts_NN2 Another_DD1 form_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 to_TO be_VBI considered_VVN involves_VVZ analysis_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ else_RR was_VBDZ happening_VVG at_II the_AT time_NNT1 a_AT1 text_NN1 was_VBDZ written_VVN and_CC first_MD published_VVD ._. 
You_PPY can_VM begin_VVI to_TO find_VVI this_DD1 out_RP by_II using_VVG an_AT1 ANNALS_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ functions_VVZ as_II a_AT1 short-cut_JJ summary_NN1 of_IO historical_JJ facts_NN2 if_CS you_PPY do_VD0 not_XX know_VVI much_RR about_II a_AT1 text_NN1 's_GE historical_JJ background_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, Emily_NP1 Bront_NP1 's_GE novel_NN1 Wuthering_VVG Heights_NN2 was_VBDZ published_VVN in_II 1847_MC ;_; the_AT annals_NN2 The_AT Teach_VV0 Yourself_PPX1 Encyclopedia_NP1 of_IO Dates_NN2 and_CC Events_NN2 tells_VVZ us_PPIO2 that_CST in_II 1846_MC the_AT term_NN1 &quot;_" folk-lore_NN1 &quot;_" was_VBDZ coined_VVN (_( which_DDQ may_VM be_VBI relevant_JJ to_II the_AT presence_NN1 of_IO fairy-tale_NN1 elements_NN2 in_II the_AT novel_NN1 )_) ._. 
Remember_VV0 here_RL too_RR the_AT issue_NN1 of_IO correlation_NN1 ,_, causation_NN1 and_CC coincidence_NN1 ._. 
Sometimes_RT a_AT1 correlation_NN1 or_CC co-occurrence_NN1 is_VBZ incorrectly_RR presented_VVN as_II a_AT1 causality_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, by_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" therefore_RR &quot;_" in_II this_DD1 sentence_NN1 :_: Dickens_NP1 and_CC Thackeray_NP1 were_VBDR concerned_JJ with_IW demanding_VVG social_JJ justice_NN1 in_II an_AT1 attempt_NN1 to_TO make_VVI life_NN1 better_RRR ,_, therefore_RR their_APPGE literature_NN1 adopted_VVD realism_NN1 as_II a_AT1 method_NN1 ._. 
There_EX could_VM be_VBI a_AT1 causal_JJ link_NN1 between_II demanding_VVG social_JJ justice_NN1 and_CC realism_NN1 as_II a_AT1 method_NN1 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX shown_VVN ._. 
There_EX may_VM be_VBI merely_RR a_AT1 less_RGR direct_JJ link_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 might_VM be_VBI ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, that_CST these_DD2 authors_NN2 '_GE social_JJ concerns_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE use_NN1 of_IO realism_NN1 both_RR come_VV0 from_II a_AT1 common_JJ source_NN1 :_: increased_JJ knowledge_NN1 of_IO social_JJ reality_NN1 as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO sociological_JJ work_NN1 in_II the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 and_CC the_AT urbanisation_NN1 of_IO Britain_NP1 ;_; that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, a_AT1 correlation_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 a_AT1 causation_NN1 ._. 
Comparing_VVG texts_NN2 Because_CS a_AT1 text_NN1 always_RR relates_VVZ historically_RR to_II other_JJ texts_NN2 ,_, one_MC1 way_NN1 of_IO developing_JJ material_NN1 for_IF your_APPGE essay_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO compare_VVI texts_NN2 ._. 
Texts_NN2 are_VBR sometimes_RT altered_VVN editorially_RR for_IF particular_JJ purposes_NN2 ,_, and_CC in_II this_DD1 respect_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, you_PPY could_VM compare_VVI Shakespeare_NP1 's_GE play_NN1 Henry_NP1 V_ZZ1 with_IW a_AT1 version_NN1 of_IO the_AT play_NN1 revised_VVN for_IF performance_NN1 in_II the_AT eighteenth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
Such_DA a_AT1 comparison_NN1 would_VM tell_VVI you_PPY about_II changes_NN2 in_II language_NN1 and_CC in_II aesthetics_NN1 ,_, about_II the_AT demands_NN2 of_IO performance_NN1 in_II the_AT eighteenth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, and_CC about_II changes_NN2 in_II social_JJ values_NN2 ._. 
Even_CS21 if_CS22 you_PPY have_VH0 no_AT interest_NN1 in_II the_AT play_NN1 Henry_NP1 V_ZZ1 itself_PPX1 ,_, the_AT comparison_NN1 helps_VVZ you_PPY to_TO learn_VVI about_II eighteenth-century_JJ attitudes_NN2 ,_, by_II providing_VVG information_NN1 and_CC insights_NN2 you_PPY can_VM then_RT use_VVI to_TO look_VVI at_II eighteenth-century_JJ drama_NN1 generally_RR ._. 
Another_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO comparison_NN1 arises_VVZ from_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST literary_JJ texts_NN2 often_RR adapt_VV0 other_JJ sorts_NN2 of_IO text_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY might_VM compare_VVI ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, a_AT1 real_JJ letter_NN1 from_II 1740_MC with_IW one_MC1 of_IO the_AT letters_NN2 in_II Richardson_NP1 's_GE novel_JJ Pamela_NP1 (_( published_VVN 1740_MC ,_, and_CC made_VVN up_RP of_IO a_AT1 sequence_NN1 of_IO imitation_NN1 letters_NN2 )_) ._. 
From_II this_DD1 you_PPY might_VM learn_VVI about_II Richardson_NP1 's_GE method_NN1 of_IO writing_NN1 ,_, as_RG well_RR as_CSA about_II differences_NN2 between_II writing_VVG which_DDQ is_VBZ really_RR private_JJ compared_VVN to_II writing_VVG which_DDQ only_RR pretends_VVZ to_TO be_VBI private_JJ ._. 
Or_CC you_PPY could_VM use_VVI a_AT1 text_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN translated_VVN from_II one_MC1 medium_NN1 into_II another_DD1 ._. 
By_II comparing_VVG the_AT film_NN1 Apocalypse_NN1 Now_RT (_( 1978_MC )_) with_IW the_AT story_NN1 on_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ based_VVN Joseph_NP1 Conrad_NP1 's_GE &quot;_" Heart_NN1 of_IO Darkness_NN1 &quot;_" (_( 1902_MC )_) you_PPY might_VM gain_VVI ideas_NN2 about_II differences_NN2 between_II film_NN1 and_CC writing_NN1 as_CSA media_NN ,_, or_CC differences_NN2 between_II an_AT1 early_JJ twentieth-century_JJ text_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 late_JJ twentieth-century_JJ text_NN1 ;_; you_PPY might_VM also_RR get_VVI ideas_NN2 about_II narrative_NN1 by_II comparing_VVG how_RRQ the_AT two_MC narratives_NN2 are_VBR the_AT same_DA and_CC how_RRQ they_PPHS2 differ_VV0 ._. 
Finally_RR ,_, a_AT1 comparison_NN1 essay_NN1 always_RR involves_VVZ a_AT1 decision_NN1 about_II how_RRQ to_TO organise_VVI the_AT comparison_NN1 ._. 
If_CS ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, you_PPY compare_VV0 the_AT film_NN1 Gregory_NP1 's_GE Girl_NN1 (_( GG_NP1 )_) with_IW the_AT play_NN1 A_ZZ1 Midsummer_NNT1 Night_NNT1 's_GE Dream_NN1 (_( MND_NP1 )_) ,_, on_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ partly_RR based_VVN ,_, you_PPY could_VM organise_VVI the_AT comparison_NN1 as_II :_: GG_NP1 narrative_NN1 compared_VVN with_IW MND_NP1 narrative_NN1 ;_; GG_NP1 characterisation_NN1 compared_VVN with_IW MND_NP1 characterisation_NN1 ;_; etc._RA ;_; summary_NN1 of_IO comparison_NN1 ._. 
Or_CC you_PPY could_VM organise_VVI the_AT comparison_NN1 as_II :_: GG_NP1 narrative_NN1 ,_, GG_NP1 characterisation_NN1 ;_; MND_NP1 narrative_NN1 ,_, MND_NP1 characterisation_NN1 ;_; etc._RA ;_; comparison_NN1 between_II the_AT two_MC texts_NN2 ._. 
Generally_RR the_AT first_MD mode_NN1 point-by-point_NN1 argument_NN1 is_VBZ preferable_JJ ,_, since_CS it_PPH1 foregrounds_NN2 comparison_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 description_NN1 ._. 
The_AT second_MD mode_NN1 of_IO presentation_NN1 has_VHZ the_AT damaging_JJ tendency_NN1 to_TO defer_VVI argument_NN1 and_CC analysis_NN1 until_CS a_AT1 closing_JJ section_NN1 ,_, before_II which_DDQ come_VV0 extended_JJ passages_NN2 of_IO paraphrase_NN1 and_CC basic_JJ description_NN1 ._. 
Finally_RR ,_, remember_VV0 that_CST point-by-point_JJ comparisons_NN2 can_VM become_VVI tedious_JJ if_CS extended_VVN too_RG far_RR ;_; a_AT1 formal_JJ analysis_NN1 always_RR needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI subordinated_VVN to_II some_DD more_DAR general_JJ point_NN1 you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO make_VVI ._. 
Using_VVG a_AT1 definition_NN1 or_CC the_AT history_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 word_NN1 in_II an_AT1 argument_NN1 An_AT1 argument_NN1 can_VM sometimes_RT be_VBI built_VVN around_II the_AT definition_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 word_NN1 ._. 
Consider_VV0 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, an_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II &quot;_" Islamic_JJ elements_NN2 in_II Byron_NP1 's_GE poetry_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
One_MC1 thing_NN1 you_PPY might_VM want_VVI to_TO do_VDI as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO putting_VVG an_AT1 argument_NN1 together_RL would_VM be_VBI to_TO look_VVI up_RP the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" Romanticism_NN1 &quot;_" in_II the_AT dictionary_NN1 ,_, since_CS Byron_NP1 's_GE poetry_NN1 belongs_VVZ to_II this_DD1 literary_JJ movement_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY will_VM probably_RR find_VVI that_CST there_EX are_VBR several_DA2 competing_JJ definitions_NN2 ,_, together_RL with_IW examples_NN2 which_DDQ will_VM help_VVI you_PPY think_VVI about_II Romanticism_NN1 ._. 
On_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO the_AT definitions_NN2 you_PPY find_VV0 ,_, you_PPY could_VM even_RR construct_VVI your_APPGE own_DA definition_NN1 of_IO Romanticism_NN1 which_DDQ would_VM help_VVI give_VVI direction_NN1 to_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY might_VM for_REX21 example_REX22 define_VVI Romanticism_NN1 as_CSA &quot;_" an_AT1 artistic_JJ movement_NN1 centrally_RR concerned_JJ with_IW the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT self_NN1 and_CC others_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
The_AT next_MD step_NN1 would_VM be_VBI to_TO explore_VVI whether_CSW the_AT &quot;_" others_NN2 &quot;_" could_VM be_VBI represented_VVN in_II Byron_NP1 's_GE poetry_NN1 by_II people_NN who_PNQS follow_VV0 the_AT religion_NN1 of_IO Islam_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Romanticism_NN1 &quot;_" would_VM be_VBI a_AT1 KEYWORD_NN1 for_IF this_DD1 essay_NN1 ._. 
Another_DD1 keyword_NN1 might_VM be_VBI &quot;_" Islamic_JJ &quot;_" ._. 
Many_DA2 words_NN2 have_VH0 a_AT1 history_NN1 which_DDQ reflects_VVZ the_AT history_NN1 of_IO ideas_NN2 and_CC the_AT history_NN1 of_IO society_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 way_NN1 of_IO finding_VVG material_NN1 for_IF your_APPGE essay_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO look_VVI up_RP your_APPGE keyword_NN1 in_II sources_NN2 concerned_JJ with_IW the_AT social_JJ history_NN1 of_IO language_NN1 and_CC ideas_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 the_AT OED_NP1 or_CC Raymond_NP1 Williams_NP1 's_GE Keywords_NN2 ._. 
The_AT OED_NP1 for_REX21 example_REX22 tells_VVZ you_PPY that_CST the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" Islam_NN1 &quot;_" was_VBDZ first_MD used_VVN in_II English_NN1 in_II a_AT1 poem_NN1 by_II Shelley_NP1 ,_, six_MC years_NNT2 before_II Byron_NP1 's_GE death_NN1 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY now_RT find_VV0 and_CC read_VVD Shelley_NP1 's_GE poem_NN1 ,_, you_PPY gain_VV0 the_AT possibility_NN1 of_IO comparing_VVG Byron_NP1 with_IW Shelley_NP1 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 how_RRQ they_PPHS2 represent_VV0 Islam_NN1 ._. 
The_AT dictionary_NN1 entry_NN1 also_RR suggests_VVZ that_CST the_AT term_NN1 &quot;_" Islam_NN1 &quot;_" was_VBDZ new_JJ to_II English-speaking_JJ culture_NN1 at_II this_DD1 time_NNT1 ,_, and_CC prompts_VVZ you_PPY to_TO look_VVI up_RP other_JJ words_NN2 ,_, including_II &quot;_" musselman_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" mohammedan_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; reading_VVG the_AT entries_NN2 on_II these_DD2 words_NN2 will_VM give_VVI you_PPY further_RRR clues_NN2 relating_VVG to_II the_AT representation_NN1 of_IO Islam_NN1 in_II English-speaking_JJ cultures_NN2 ,_, and_CC so_RR further_JJR material_NN1 for_IF your_APPGE argument._NNU 3.2_MC ORDERING_VVG THE_AT PARTS_NN2 OF_IO YOUR_APPGE ARGUMENT_NN1 An_AT1 essay_NN1 is_VBZ made_VVN up_RP of_IO parts_NN2 ,_, each_DD1 part_NN1 relating_VVG to_II the_AT parts_NN2 around_II it_PPH1 ,_, with_IW a_AT1 forward_JJ movement_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 what_DDQ comes_VVZ first_MD leads_VVZ to_II what_DDQ comes_VVZ next_MD ._. 
Working_VVG out_RP the_AT part-structure_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO working_VVG out_RP what_DDQ your_APPGE argument_NN1 is_VBZ ;_; and_CC if_CS the_AT organisation_NN1 of_IO parts_NN2 is_VBZ clear_JJ ,_, this_DD1 helps_VVZ your_APPGE reader_NN1 to_TO understand_VVI how_RRQ the_AT essay_NN1 develops_VVZ ._. 
Here_RL ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, is_VBZ an_AT1 initial_JJ organisation_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II the_AT Scottish_JJ novelist_NN1 Josephine_NP1 Tey_NP1 :_: introduction_NN1 career_NN1 as_II a_AT1 London_NP1 playwright_NN1 recent_JJ critical_JJ appraisal_NN1 powers_NN2 of_IO description_NN1 humour_NN1 education_NN1 church_NN1 the_AT divided_JJ self_NN1 the_AT divided_JJ self_NN1 most_DAT of_IO all_DB as_II a_AT1 woman_NN1 her_APPGE final_JJ novel_NN1 The_AT Singing_NN1 Sands_NP ._. 
As_CSA it_PPH1 stands_VVZ ,_, this_DD1 organisation_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX make_VVI clear_JJ how_RRQ the_AT parts_NN2 relate_VV0 to_II each_PPX221 other_PPX222 ,_, what_DDQ the_AT development_NN1 is_VBZ ,_, or_CC even_RR what_DDQ the_AT point_NN1 is_VBZ of_IO some_DD of_IO the_AT parts_NN2 (_( why_RRQ should_VM there_EX be_VBI a_AT1 special_JJ section_NN1 devoted_VVD to_II her_APPGE final_JJ novel_NN1 but_CCB not_XX the_AT others_NN2 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ?_? )_) ._. 
So_RR we_PPIS2 might_VM reorganise_VVI the_AT parts_NN2 like_II this_DD1 :_: introduction_NN1 biographical_JJ details_NN2 (_( including_II career_NN1 as_II a_AT1 London_NP1 playwright_NN1 )_) qualities_NN2 as_II a_AT1 writer_NN1 powers_NN2 of_IO description_NN1 humour_NN1 themes_NN2 education_NN1 church_NN1 the_AT divided_JJ self_NN1 most_DAT of_IO all_DB as_II an_AT1 artistic_JJ movement_NN1 centrally_RR concerned_JJ with_IW the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT self_NN1 and_CC others._NNU woman_NN1 (_( as_II a_AT1 theme_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 the_AT divided_JJ self_NN1 recent_JJ critical_JJ appraisal_NN1 conclusion_NN1 :_: her_APPGE final_JJ novel_NN1 The_AT Singing_NN1 Sands_NP ._. 
Our_APPGE revised_JJ version_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT result_NN1 of_IO the_AT following_JJ organisational_JJ changes_NN2 :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) We_PPIS2 put_VV0 &quot;_" career_NN1 as_II a_AT1 London_NP1 playwright_NN1 &quot;_" into_II a_AT1 larger_JJR section_NN1 called_VVN &quot;_" biographical_JJ details_NN2 &quot;_" ,_, because_CS there_EX are_VBR other_JJ relevant_JJ biographical_JJ points_NN2 we_PPIS2 will_VM want_VVI to_TO make._NNU (_( b_ZZ1 )_) We_PPIS2 grouped_VVD &quot;_" powers_NN2 of_IO description_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" humour_NN1 &quot;_" in_II a_AT1 section_NN1 called_VVN &quot;_" qualities_NN2 as_II a_AT1 writer_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; we_PPIS2 can_VM now_RT add_VVI other_JJ qualities_NN2 to_II this_DD1 section_NN1 if_CS we_PPIS2 wish_VV0 ._. 
Similarly_RR we_PPIS2 have_VH0 made_VVN a_AT1 group_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" themes_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
(_( c_ZZ1 )_) We_PPIS2 moved_VVD &quot;_" recent_JJ critical_JJ appraisal_NN1 &quot;_" after_II our_APPGE analysis_NN1 of_IO powers_NN2 of_IO description_NN1 and_CC humour_NN1 because_CS these_DD2 sections_NN2 give_VV0 our_APPGE own_DA critical_JJ appraisal_NN1 ;_; now_RT ,_, by_II the_AT time_NNT1 we_PPIS2 outline_VV0 other_JJ people_NN 's_GE opinions_NN2 we_PPIS2 have_VH0 something_PN1 to_TO compare_VVI them_PPHO2 with_IW ,_, and_CC can_VM therefore_RR do_VDI something_PN1 more_RGR interesting_JJ than_CSN just_RR repeat_VV0 them._NNU (_( d_ZZ1 )_) We_PPIS2 have_VH0 made_VVN explicit_JJ the_AT reason_NN1 for_IF focusing_VVG on_II the_AT last_MD novel_NN1 we_PPIS2 chose_VVD it_PPH1 because_CS it_PPH1 acts_VVZ as_II a_AT1 summary_NN1 of_IO Tey_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 ,_, and_CC so_RR is_VBZ an_AT1 appropriate_JJ topic_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 conclusion_NN1 ._. 
With_IW a_AT1 longer_JJR dissertation_NN1 ,_, be_VBI careful_JJ not_XX to_TO overload_VVI the_AT first_MD part_NN1 ,_, especially_RR if_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 biographical_JJ summary_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 description_NN1 of_IO historical_JJ context_NN1 ,_, or_CC a_AT1 literature_NN1 review_VV0 all_DB of_IO which_DDQ are_VBR potentially_RR interminable_JJ ._. 
To_TO overcome_VVI problems_NN2 of_IO overloading_VVG the_AT opening_NN1 section_NN1 ,_, try_VV0 to_TO avoid_VVI the_AT following_JJ structure_NN1 :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) literature_NN1 review_NN1 ;_; (_( b_ZZ1 )_) introduce_VV0 case_NN1 study_NN1 ;_; (_( c_ZZ1 )_) detail_NN1 of_IO case_NN1 study_NN1 ;_; (_( d_ZZ1 )_) analysis_NN1 ,_, findings_NN2 and_CC conclusion_NN1 ._. 
In_II such_DA a_AT1 structure_NN1 ,_, (_( a_ZZ1 )_) usually_RR becomes_VVZ overloaded_JJ ._. 
Instead_RR ,_, try_VV0 something_PN1 like_II :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) scene-setting_NN1 ;_; reasons_NN2 for_IF interest_NN1 ;_; the_AT problem_NN1 ;_; (_( b_ZZ1 )_) case_NN1 study_NN1 ;_; (_( c_ZZ1 )_) analysis_NN1 of_IO findings_NN2 ;_; (_( d_ZZ1 )_) discussion_NN1 of_IO wider_JJR themes_NN2 ;_; relation_NN1 to_II existing_JJ work_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 revised_JJ format_NN1 you_PPY present_JJ material_NN1 from_II your_APPGE literature_NN1 review_NN1 ,_, paradoxically_RR ,_, at_II the_AT end_NN1 (_( under_II &quot;_" relation_NN1 to_II existing_JJ work_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ,_, where_CS you_PPY examine_VV0 implications_NN2 and_CC applications._NNU 3.3_MC ASSERTION_NN1 ,_, JUSTIFICATION_NN1 AND_CC PRESUPPOSITION_NN1 At_II many_DA2 points_NN2 in_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 you_PPY will_VM just_RR want_VVI to_TO propose_VVI or_CC say_VVI something_PN1 ;_; so_RG many_DA2 of_IO your_APPGE sentences_NN2 will_VM be_VBI ASSERTIONS_NN2 ._. 
When_CS you_PPY make_VV0 an_AT1 assertion_NN1 ,_, what_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR doing_VDG is_VBZ telling_VVG your_APPGE reader_NN1 something_PN1 you_PPY think_VV0 is_VBZ true_JJ ._. 
Assertions_NN2 can_VM be_VBI signalled_VVN by_II writing_VVG &quot;_" I_PPIS1 would_VM suggest_VVI &quot;_" ,_, or_CC &quot;_" I_PPIS1 would_VM argue_VVI &quot;_" ,_, but_CCB often_RR it_PPH1 is_VBZ just_RR assumed_VVN that_CST whatever_DDQV you_PPY say_VV0 is_VBZ your_APPGE suggestion_NN1 or_CC argument_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 section_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 look_VV0 at_II two_MC important_JJ questions_NN2 you_PPY should_VM ask_VVI about_II any_DD assertion_NN1 you_PPY make_VV0 in_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) Does_VDZ the_AT assertion_NN1 need_VVI further_JJR justification_NN1 ?_? (_( b_ZZ1 )_) Does_VDZ the_AT assertion_NN1 presuppose_VVI too_RG much_DA1 ?_? 
We_PPIS2 begin_VV0 with_IW justification_NN1 ._. 
If_CS all_DB your_APPGE essay_NN1 consisted_VVN of_IO was_VBDZ just_RR a_AT1 series_NN of_IO assertions_NN2 ,_, there_EX would_VM be_VBI little_JJ connection_NN1 or_CC development_NN1 between_II the_AT parts_NN2 :_: there_EX would_VM be_VBI no_AT argument_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 assertion_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 argument_NN1 when_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ combined_VVN with_IW a_AT1 justification_NN1 :_: assertion_NN1 :_: &quot;_" Dickens_NP1 showed_VVD an_AT1 incorrect_JJ view_NN1 of_IO the_AT London_NP1 working_VVG classes_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" Justification_NN1 could_VM be_VBI given_VVN for_IF this_DD1 assertion_NN1 by_II describing_VVG Dickens_NP1 's_GE view_NN1 of_IO the_AT London_NP1 working_VVG classes_NN2 ,_, then_RT describing_VVG the_AT view_NN1 of_IO one_MC1 or_CC more_DAR modern_JJ historians_NN2 ,_, then_RT showing_VVG that_CST the_AT two_MC views_NN2 are_VBR significantly_RR different_JJ to_II the_AT extent_NN1 that_CST Dickens_NP1 's_VBZ could_VM be_VBI called_VVN incorrect_JJ ._. 
This_DD1 could_VM be_VBI developed_VVN further_RRR by_II defending_VVG your_APPGE assertion_NN1 against_II an_AT1 alternative_NN1 a_AT1 Dickens_NP1 critic_NN1 who_PNQS says_VVZ that_CST Dickens_NP1 had_VHD an_AT1 accurate_JJ view_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 matters_NN2 and_CC showing_VVG that_CST the_AT alternative_JJ view_NN1 is_VBZ incorrect_JJ ,_, or_CC that_CST the_AT critic_NN1 provides_VVZ no_AT supporting_JJ evidence_NN1 (_( and_CC so_CS21 that_CS22 there_EX is_VBZ no_AT reason_NN1 to_TO believe_VVI the_AT alternative_JJ view_NN1 )_) ._. 
While_CS justification_NN1 of_IO assertions_NN2 is_VBZ the_AT motor_NN1 which_DDQ drives_VVZ your_APPGE essay_NN1 forwards_RL and_CC builds_VVZ your_APPGE argument_NN1 ,_, you_PPY can_VM not_XX justify_VVI each_DD1 assertion_NN1 you_PPY make_VV0 ._. 
Moreover_RR ,_, how_RRQ important_JJ you_PPY think_VV0 it_PPH1 is_VBZ to_TO justify_VVI your_APPGE assertions_NN2 will_VM depend_VVI partly_RR on_II what_DDQ sort_RR21 of_RR22 writing_VVG you_PPY are_VBR engaged_VVN in_II ;_; a_AT1 film_NN1 review_NN1 in_II a_AT1 newspaper_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, is_VBZ a_AT1 genre_NN1 where_CS few_DA2 assertions_NN2 are_VBR justified_VVN ._. 
On_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, your_APPGE reader_NN1 will_VM be_VBI interested_JJ in_II your_APPGE writing_NN1 only_RR to_II the_AT extent_NN1 that_CST what_DDQ you_PPY say_VV0 is_VBZ convincing_JJ ;_; and_CC while_CS a_AT1 film_NN1 reviewer_NN1 or_CC a_AT1 famous_JJ literary_JJ theorist_NN1 may_VM be_VBI able_JK to_TO rely_VVI on_II their_APPGE position_NN1 or_CC fame_NN1 to_TO guarantee_VVI the_AT authority_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ they_PPHS2 say_VV0 ,_, you_PPY will_VM need_VVI to_TO rely_VVI on_II the_AT quality_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE argument_NN1 ._. 
Nevertheless_RR ,_, there_EX are_VBR no_AT fixed_JJ rules_NN2 about_II justifying_VVG arguments_NN2 in_II literary_JJ studies_NN2 ._. 
The_AT conventions_NN2 about_II what_DDQ counts_VVZ as_II a_AT1 convincing_JJ argument_NN1 vary_VV0 with_IW time_NNT1 and_CC place_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD people_NN think_VV0 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, that_DD1 value_NN1 judgements_NN2 (_( &quot;_" this_DD1 novel_NN1 is_VBZ Greene_NP1 's_GE best_JJT &quot;_" )_) can_VM not_XX ever_RR be_VBI justified_VVN ;_; you_PPY may_VM disagree_VVI it_PPH1 depends_VVZ on_II your_APPGE ideas_NN2 about_II value_NN1 and_CC whether_CSW you_PPY think_VV0 a_AT1 value_NN1 judgement_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 arbitrary_JJ decision_NN1 on_II41 the_II42 part_II43 of_II44 a_AT1 reader_NN1 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY make_VV0 an_AT1 assertion_NN1 which_DDQ you_PPY think_VV0 in_II principle_NN1 could_VM be_VBI justified_VVN but_CCB which_DDQ you_PPY do_VD0 n't_XX have_VHI space_NN1 to_TO justify_VVI ,_, you_PPY can_VM alert_VVI the_AT reader_NN1 by_II adding_VVG a_AT1 phrase_NN1 like_II :_: &quot;_" I_PPIS1 am_VBM assuming_VVG that_DD1 ..._... &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" we_PPIS2 could_VM argue_VVI that_DD1 ..._... &quot;_" ,_, or_CC &quot;_" it_PPH1 is_VBZ generally_RR accepted_VVN that_CST ..._... &quot;_" ;_; the_AT advantage_NN1 of_IO using_VVG these_DD2 phrases_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST you_PPY acknowledge_VV0 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ some_DD possibility_NN1 of_IO disagreement_NN1 ._. 
When_CS you_PPY write_VV0 a_AT1 sentence_NN1 ,_, you_PPY claim_VV0 that_CST something_PN1 is_VBZ true_JJ ,_, that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, you_PPY explicitly_RR assert_VV0 a_AT1 proposition_NN1 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY write_VV0 &quot;_" the_AT second_MD novel_NN1 Dickens_NP1 produced_VVD was_VBDZ called_VVN Oliver_NP1 Twist_NP1 &quot;_" ,_, then_RT you_PPY are_VBR explicitly_RR asserting_VVG that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ true_JJ that_CST the_AT second_MD novel_NN1 Dickens_NP1 produced_VVD was_VBDZ called_VVN Oliver_NP1 Twist_NP1 ._. 
As_CSA you_PPY write_VV0 ,_, however_RR ,_, you_PPY inevitably_RR commit_VV0 yourself_PPX1 not_XX only_RR to_II propositions_NN2 you_PPY explicitly_RR assert_VV0 ,_, but_CCB also_RR to_II other_JJ propositions_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR implicit_JJ in_II ,_, or_CC presupposed_VVD by_RP ,_, the_AT words_NN2 you_PPY actually_RR write_VV0 down_RP ._. 
In_II writing_VVG the_AT above_JJ sentence_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, you_PPY PRESUPPOSED_VVD that_CST Dickens_NP1 produced_VVD a_AT1 second_MD novel_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Pre-suppose_VV0 &quot;_" means_NN in_II effect_NN1 that_CST you_PPY have_VH0 already_RR supposed_VVN or_CC claimed_VVD this_DD1 without_IW needing_VVG to_TO write_VVI it_PPH1 down_RP ._. 
Hidden_JJ commitments_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 kind_NN1 are_VBR often_RR the_AT result_NN1 of_IO using_VVG particular_JJ words_NN2 (_( here_RL ,_, &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" )_) or_CC phrases_NN2 or_CC constructions_NN2 ._. 
Consider_VV0 the_AT following_JJ sentence_NN1 :_: William_NP1 Golding_NP1 's_GE best_JJT novel_NN1 ,_, Lord_NN1 of_IO the_AT Flies_NN2 ,_, is_VBZ a_AT1 reflection_NN1 of_IO the_AT widespread_JJ pessimism_NN1 about_II the_AT morality_NN1 of_IO children_NN2 in_II the_AT 1950s_MC2 ._. 
This_DD1 sentence_NN1 makes_VVZ a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO claims_NN2 ,_, some_DD more_DAR overt_JJ than_CSN others_NN2 ._. 
The_AT overt_JJ claim_NN1 is_VBZ &quot;_" Lord_NN1 of_IO the_AT Flies_NN2 is_VBZ a_AT1 reflection_NN1 of_IO the_AT widespread_JJ pessimism_NN1 about_II the_AT morality_NN1 of_IO children_NN2 in_II the_AT 1950s_MC2 &quot;_" ._. 
But_CCB two_MC other_JJ claims_NN2 are_VBR being_VBG made_VVN as_RR21 well_RR22 :_: &quot;_" Lord_NN1 of_IO the_AT Flies_NN2 is_VBZ William_NP1 Golding_NP1 's_GE best_JJT novel_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, and_CC &quot;_" There_EX was_VBDZ widespread_JJ pessimism_NN1 about_II the_AT morality_NN1 of_IO children_NN2 in_II the_AT 1950s_MC2 &quot;_" ._. 
These_DD2 two_MC claims_NN2 are_VBR both_RR presupposed_VVN by_II the_AT sentence_NN1 ;_; that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, the_AT sentence_NN1 just_RR assumes_VVZ they_PPHS2 are_VBR true_JJ ._. 
Such_DA hidden_JJ assertions_NN2 can_VM easily_RR be_VBI discovered_VVN ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ less_RGR easy_JJ to_TO notice_VVI two_MC further_JJR presuppositions_NN2 in_II the_AT sentence_NN1 :_: &quot;_" It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO evaluate_VVI texts_NN2 (_( i.e._REX say_VV0 that_CST one_PN1 is_VBZ the_AT 'best'_NN1 )_) &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ for_IF texts_NN2 to_TO reflect_VVI social_JJ attitudes_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
So_RR what_DDQ this_DD1 example_NN1 shows_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST a_AT1 sentence_NN1 which_DDQ seems_VVZ to_TO contain_VVI one_MC1 assertion_NN1 can_VM turn_VVI out_RP to_TO contain_VVI many_DA2 different_JJ assertions_NN2 ,_, some_DD in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO presuppositions_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ unavoidable_JJ ,_, and_CC occurs_VVZ all_DB the_AT time_NNT1 as_CSA you_PPY speak_VV0 or_CC write_VV0 ._. 
But_CCB there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 good_JJ reason_NN1 for_IF making_VVG yourself_PPX1 aware_JJ of_IO presuppositions_NN2 :_: you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI as_RG conscious_JJ as_CSA possible_JJ of_IO all_DB the_AT assertions_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR making_VVG ,_, including_II hidden_JJ ones_NN2 ._. 
Presuppositions_NN2 and_CC hidden_JJ assumptions_NN2 are_VBR the_AT hiding_NN1 place_NN1 for_IF common_JJ sense_NN1 and_CC shared_JJ assumptions_NN2 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY think_VV0 a_AT1 particular_JJ assumption_NN1 might_VM reasonably_RR be_VBI disagreed_VVN with_IW by_II the_AT reader_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 you_PPY should_VM make_VVI that_DD1 assumption_NN1 explicit_JJ (_( and_CC then_RT provide_VV0 some_DD support_NN1 for_IF it_PPH1 )_) ._. 
For_IF these_DD2 reasons_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ useful_JJ to_TO know_VVI what_DDQ the_AT words_NN2 ,_, phrases_NN2 and_CC constructions_NN2 are_VBR which_DDQ regularly_RR conceal_VV0 presuppositions_NN2 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY know_VV0 what_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR letting_VVG yourself_PPX1 in_RP for_IF when_RRQ you_PPY use_VV0 them._NNU *_FU We_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN one_MC1 kind_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 phrase_NN1 like_II &quot;_" the_AT second_MD novel_NN1 Dickens_NP1 produced_VVD &quot;_" is_VBZ not_XX itself_PPX1 a_AT1 statement_NN1 of_IO fact_NN1 ,_, but_CCB can_VM be_VBI rewritten_VVN as_II a_AT1 sentence_NN1 to_TO show_VVI its_APPGE presupposition_NN1 (_( &quot;_" Dickens_NP1 produced_VVD a_AT1 second_MD novel_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
Using_VVG &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 phrase_NN1 implies_VVZ general_JJ agreement_NN1 about_II the_AT existence_NN1 of_IO whatever_DDQV the_AT phrase_NN1 refers_VVZ to_II ._. 
A_AT1 similar_JJ mechanism_NN1 works_VVZ in_RP :_: What_DDQ is_VBZ Kristeva_NP1 's_GE position_NN1 on_II gender-positioning_NN1 in_II this_DD1 article_NN1 ?_? 
This_DD1 presupposes_VVZ that_CST Kristeva_NP1 has_VHZ a_AT1 position_NN1 on_II gender-positioning_NN1 in_II this_DD1 article._NNU *_FU Other_JJ words_NN2 which_DDQ carry_VV0 presuppositions_NN2 are_VBR the_AT adverbial_JJ words_NN2 and_CC phrases_NN2 which_DDQ mean_VV0 &quot;_" again_RT &quot;_" (_( ITERATIVES_NP2 )_) :_: Emily_NP1 Bront_NP1 began_VVD writing_VVG the_AT novel_NN1 once_RR21 more_RR22 ._. 
This_DD1 presupposes_VVZ that_CST Emily_NP1 Bront_NP1 had_VHD begun_VVN writing_VVG the_AT novel_JJ before._NNU *_FU Presuppositions_NN2 are_VBR sometimes_RT embedded_VVN with_IW particular_JJ verbs_NN2 ,_, including_II FACTIVE_JJ VERBS_NN2 like_II &quot;_" regret_NN1 &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" know_VV0 &quot;_" ,_, which_DDQ presuppose_VV0 that_CST what_DDQ is_VBZ regretted_VVN or_CC known_VVN is_VBZ a_AT1 fact_NN1 ._. 
At_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO the_AT book_NN1 ,_, the_AT main_JJ character_NN1 regrets_NN2 believing_VVG in_II God_NP1 ._. 
This_DD1 presupposes_VVZ that_CST &quot;_" the_AT main_JJ character_NN1 believed_VVN in_II God_NP1 &quot;_" ._. 
There_EX are_VBR also_RR IMPLICATIVE_JJ VERBS_NN2 which_DDQ imply_VV0 one_MC1 action_NN1 by_II stating_VVG another_DD1 :_: Victorian_JJ writers_NN2 managed_VVD to_TO persuade_VVI us_PPIO2 that_DD1 ..._... 
This_DD1 presupposes_VVZ that_CST Victorian_JJ writers_NN2 tried_VVD to_TO persuade_VVI us_PPIO2 that_DD1 ..._... *_FU Some_DD connectives_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" although_CS &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" since_CS &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" because_CS &quot;_" also_RR conceal_VV0 presuppositions_NN2 :_: Because_CS Dickens_NP1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 social_JJ reformer_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 focused_VVD in_II his_APPGE work_NN1 on_II poverty_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 presupposes_VVZ that_CST Dickens_NP1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 social_JJ reformer._NNU *_FU It_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR possible_JJ to_TO put_VVI presuppositions_NN2 into_II a_AT1 sentence_NN1 by_II just_RR rearranging_VVG the_AT parts_NN2 ,_, as_CSA in_II the_AT following_JJ example_NN1 (_( called_VVN a_AT1 CLEFT_NN1 )_) ,_, based_VVN on_II &quot;_" Senecan_JJ influence_NN1 brought_VVD blood_NN1 to_II Renaissance_NN1 tragedy_NN1 &quot;_" :_: It_PPH1 was_VBDZ Senecan_JJ influence_NN1 which_DDQ brought_VVD blood_NN1 to_II Renaissance_NN1 tragedy_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 presupposes_VVZ that_CST something_PN1 brought_VVD blood_NN1 to_II Renaissance_NN1 tragedy_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 superficially_RR similar_JJ rearrangement_NN1 (_( called_VVN a_AT1 PSEUDOCLEFT_NN1 because_CS it_PPH1 looks_VVZ a_RR21 bit_RR22 like_II a_AT1 cleft_JJ but_CCB is_VBZ n't_XX one_MC1 )_) is_VBZ shown_VVN in_II this_DD1 example_NN1 :_: What_DDQ contemporary_JJ novelists_NN2 do_VD0 well_RR is_VBZ comment_NN1 on_II novel-writing_NN1 rather_CS21 than_CS22 tell_VVI stories_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 presupposes_VVZ that_CST &quot;_" contemporary_JJ novelists_NN2 do_VD0 something_PN1 well_RR ._. 
&quot;_" *_FU Another_DD1 arrangement_NN1 of_IO the_AT sentence_NN1 which_DDQ carries_VVZ a_AT1 presupposition_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT COUNTERFACTUAL_JJ CONDITIONAL_NN1 :_: &quot;_" if_CS X_ZZ1 had/had_VHD n't_XX been_VBN the_AT case_NN1 ,_, then_RT Y_ZZ1 &quot;_" :_: If_CS Renaissance_NN1 dramatists_NN2 had_VHD not_XX known_VVN Seneca_NP1 ,_, they_PPHS2 would_VM have_VHI been_VBN less_RGR interested_JJ in_II blood_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 presupposes_VVZ that_DD1 &quot;_" Renaissance_NN1 dramatists_NN2 did_VDD know_VVI Seneca._NP1 &quot;_" *_FU Finally_RR ,_, another_DD1 place_NN1 for_IF presuppositions_NN2 to_TO hide_VVI is_VBZ in_II a_AT1 clause_NN1 which_DDQ sets_VVZ the_AT scene_NN1 in_II a_AT1 sentence_NN1 ;_; an_AT1 example_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT TEMPORAL_JJ CLAUSE_NN1 ,_, as_CSA in_II the_AT following_JJ example_NN1 :_: When_RRQ Blake_NP1 saw_VVD his_APPGE first_MD angels_NN2 he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ sitting_VVG in_II his_APPGE garden_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 presupposes_VVZ that_CST Blake_NP1 saw_VVD angels_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ worth_II checking_VVG your_APPGE essay_NN1 to_TO make_VVI sure_JJ that_CST you_PPY are_VBR not_XX presupposing_VVG things_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY do_VD0 n't_XX believe_VVI are_VBR true_JJ ,_, and_CC that_CST you_PPY are_VBR n't_XX hiding_VVG anything_PN1 in_II a_AT1 presupposition_NN1 which_DDQ needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI made_VVN explicit_JJ and_CC justified_JJ ._. 
But_CCB presuppositions_NN2 are_VBR essentially_RR a_AT1 tool_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 a_AT1 nuisance_NN1 a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO expanding_VVG the_AT power_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE writing_NN1 by_II enabling_VVG you_PPY to_TO say_VVI a_AT1 lot_NN1 in_II a_AT1 short_JJ space_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 allow_VV0 you_PPY to_TO imply_VVI things_NN2 without_IW saying_VVG them_PPHO2 directly_RR ,_, and_CC so_RR to_TO develop_VVI complex_JJ arguments_NN2 in_II relatively_RR short_JJ passages_NN2 of_IO writing_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA you_PPY write_VV0 ,_, there_EX are_VBR some_DD ideas_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY present_VV0 as_RG &quot;_" given_JJ &quot;_" information_NN1 ;_; they_PPHS2 form_VV0 an_AT1 assumed_JJ background_NN1 to_II what_DDQ you_PPY wish_VV0 to_TO assert_VVI ._. 
Presuppositions_NN2 contribute_VV0 to_II that_DD1 given_JJ information_NN1 ._. 
Other_JJ ideas_NN2 are_VBR presented_VVN as_CSA &quot;_" new_JJ &quot;_" information_NN1 :_: they_PPHS2 are_VBR what_DDQ you_PPY offer_VV0 as_RG new_JJ ,_, and_CC so_RR of_IO interest_NN1 ._. 
By_II judging_VVG which_DDQ information_NN1 to_TO present_VVI as_CSA given_VVN and_CC which_DDQ to_TO present_VVI as_RG new_JJ ,_, you_PPY establish_VV0 an_AT1 important_JJ dimension_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE relationship_NN1 with_IW your_APPGE reader_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY are_VBR signalling_VVG what_DDQ you_PPY take_VV0 as_RG common_JJ or_CC assumed_JJ ground_NN1 between_II your_APPGE reader_NN1 and_CC yourself_PPX1 ,_, and_CC what_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR representing_VVG as_RG worthy_JJ of_IO attention_NN1 ,_, as_CSA &quot;_" new_JJ &quot;_" ideas_NN2 ._. 
Consider_VV0 this_DD1 simple_JJ introduction_NN1 to_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 :_: Shakespeare_NP1 's_GE birth_NN1 in_II 1564_MC marks_VVZ the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO the_AT high_JJ period_NN1 of_IO English_JJ drama_NN1 ._. 
When_CS he_PPHS1 later_RRR produced_VVN a_AT1 series_NN of_IO outstanding_JJ tragic_JJ works_NN ,_, what_DDQ he_PPHS1 managed_VVD to_TO do_VDI ,_, in_II effect_NN1 ,_, was_VBDZ to_TO bring_VVI about_RP the_AT transition_NN1 from_II crude_JJ medieval_JJ drama_NN1 towards_II the_AT more_RGR sustained_JJ literary_JJ achievement_NN1 of_IO the_AT Renaissance_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 opening_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO ideas_NN2 are_VBR not_XX stated_VVN ,_, but_CCB presupposed_VVD :_: Shakespeare_NP1 was_VBDZ born_VVN in_II 1564_MC ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 high_JJ period_NN1 of_IO English_JJ drama_NN1 (_( which_DDQ had_VHD a_AT1 beginning_NN1 )_) ._. 
Shakespeare_NP1 produced_VVD a_AT1 series_NN of_IO outstanding_JJ tragic_JJ works_NN ._. 
Shakespeare_NP1 tried_VVD to_TO bring_VVI about_RP a_AT1 transition_NN1 ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 transition_NN1 from_II crude_JJ medieval_JJ drama_NN1 towards_II Renaissance_NN1 drama_NN1 ._. 
Other_JJ dramatists_NN2 did_VDD not_XX bring_VVI about_RP such_DA a_AT1 transition_NN1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 literary_JJ achievement_NN1 of_IO the_AT Renaissance_NN1 ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 Renaissance_NN1 ._. 
All_DB these_DD2 ideas_NN2 each_DD1 of_IO which_DDQ is_VBZ in_II principle_NN1 arguable_JJ are_VBR compacted_VVN into_II two_MC relatively_RR short_JJ sentences_NN2 and_CC are_VBR linked_VVN together_RL in_II a_AT1 gradually_RR unfolding_VVG argument_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB the_AT writer_NN1 could_VM equally_RR have_VHI made_VVN different_JJ decisions_NN2 about_II what_DDQ should_VM be_VBI treated_VVN as_CSA given_VVN (_( shared_JJ background_NN1 knowledge_NN1 )_) and_CC what_DDQ should_VM be_VBI presented_VVN as_CSA new_JJ ._. 
The_AT essay_NN1 might_VM have_VHI started_VVN in_II any_DD one_MC1 of_IO the_AT following_JJ ways_NN2 :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) &quot;_" Arguably_RR there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 transition_NN1 between_II ..._... &quot;_" (_( b_ZZ1 )_) &quot;_" William_NP1 Shakespeare_NP1 was_VBDZ born_VVN in_RP ..._... &quot;_" (_( c_ZZ1 )_) &quot;_" The_AT concept_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 'Renaissance'_NN1 in_II history_NN1 can_VM be_VBI established_VVN ..._... 
&quot;_" The_AT distinction_NN1 between_II given_JJ and_CC new_JJ information_NN1 contributes_VVZ substantially_RR to_II the_AT level_NN1 at_II which_DDQ your_APPGE essay_NN1 is_VBZ pitched_VVN ._. 
This_DD1 ,_, in_II turn_NN1 ,_, gives_VVZ your_APPGE reader_NN1 a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ sort_NN1 of_IO debate_NN1 or_CC discussion_NN1 you_PPY see_VV0 yourself_PPX1 as_CSA being_VBG engaged_VVN in_II ;_; and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ this_DD1 ,_, alongside_II whatever_DDQV concrete_JJ arguments_NN2 you_PPY make_VV0 on_II a_AT1 given_JJ topic_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ shapes_VVZ a_AT1 reader_NN1 's_GE or_CC examiner_NN1 's_GE general_JJ response_NN1 to_II what_DDQ you_PPY write._NNU 3.4_MC GENERALISATION_NN1 In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 so_RG far_RR we_PPIS2 have_VH0 focused_VVN on_II specificities_NN2 in_II your_APPGE argument_NN1 the_AT presuppositions_NN2 in_II your_APPGE sentences_NN2 ,_, the_AT specific_JJ things_NN2 you_PPY can_VM say_VVI about_II particular_JJ texts_NN2 ,_, the_AT setting_NN1 of_IO something_PN1 in_II its_APPGE context_NN1 ,_, and_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 ._. 
However_RR ,_, specific_JJ observations_NN2 always_RR needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI related_VVN to_II general_JJ claims_NN2 or_CC GENERALISATIONS_NP1 ,_, without_IW which_DDQ the_AT specific_JJ can_VM just_RR seem_VVI trivial_JJ and_CC random_JJ ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, a_AT1 specific_JJ observation_NN1 about_II some_DD aspect_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 (_( such_II21 as_II22 its_APPGE rhyme_NN1 scheme_NN1 )_) could_VM lead_VVI to_II a_AT1 generalisation_NN1 based_VVN on_II how_RRQ it_PPH1 fits_VVZ with_IW other_JJ related_JJ observations_NN2 (_( the_AT rhyme_NN1 schemes_NN2 of_IO other_JJ poems_NN2 by_II the_AT same_DA poet_NN1 )_) ._. 
A_AT1 concrete_JJ comment_NN1 on_II some_DD special_JJ element_NN1 of_IO the_AT text_NN1 (_( such_II21 as_II22 a_AT1 particularly_RR striking_JJ metaphor_NN1 )_) could_VM lead_VVI to_II a_AT1 more_RGR abstract_JJ general_JJ discussion_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE significance_NN1 beyond_II the_AT text_NN1 (_( what_DDQ makes_VVZ any_DD metaphor_NN1 striking_VVG ?_? )_) ._. 
Generalising_VVG from_II your_APPGE experience_NN1 of_IO reading_VVG one_MC1 unique_JJ passage_NN1 or_CC making_VVG a_AT1 specific_JJ concrete_JJ observation_NN1 leads_VVZ to_II speculation_NN1 about_II patterns_NN2 or_CC regularities_NN2 ,_, and_CC beyond_II this_DD1 to_II thinking_VVG about_II causation_NN1 and_CC correlation_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ are_VBR central_JJ to_II explanation_NN1 and_CC argument_NN1 ._. 
So_RR generalisation_NN1 is_VBZ important_JJ as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO pulling_VVG you_PPY out_II21 of_II22 just_RR describing_VVG the_AT details_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE individual_JJ experience_NN1 as_II a_AT1 reader_NN1 ,_, enabling_VVG you_PPY to_TO make_VVI statements_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI of_IO interest_NN1 to_II others_NN2 about_II patterns_NN2 or_CC structures_NN2 in_II the_AT way_NN1 literary_JJ texts_NN2 work_VV0 ._. 
In_II practice_NN1 ,_, you_PPY might_VM ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) Broaden_VV0 your_APPGE essay_NN1 's_GE conclusions_NN2 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 they_PPHS2 could_VM in_II principle_NN1 be_VBI applied_VVN to_II other_JJ books_NN2 ,_, or_CC an_AT1 author_NN1 's_GE work_NN1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 ._. 
Example_NN1 In_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II an_AT1 eighteenth-century_JJ play_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ has_VHZ argued_VVN that_CST the_AT women_NN2 in_II the_AT play_NN1 are_VBR generally_RR seen_VVN to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 source_NN1 of_IO disruption_NN1 or_CC confusion_NN1 ,_, you_PPY could_VM conclude_VVI by_II asking_VVG whether_CSW women_NN2 are_VBR general_JJ sources_NN2 of_IO disruption_NN1 ,_, broadly_RR understood_VVN ,_, in_II eighteenth-century_JJ drama._NNU (_( b_ZZ1 )_) Treat_VV0 a_AT1 specific_JJ question_NN1 or_CC topic_NN1 as_II an_AT1 instance_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 more_RGR general_JJ question_NN1 or_CC topic_NN1 ._. 
Example_NN1 The_AT topic_NN1 &quot;_" Islamic_JJ elements_NN2 in_II Byron_NP1 's_GE poetry_NN1 &quot;_" could_VM be_VBI given_VVN greater_JJR interest_NN1 and_CC significance_NN1 by_II placing_VVG it_PPH1 in_II a_AT1 more_RGR general_JJ discussion_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" foreignness_NN1 &quot;_" in_II British_JJ Romantic_JJ texts._NNU (_( c_ZZ1 )_) Try_VV0 to_TO link_VVI together_RL the_AT scattered_JJ specific_JJ observations_NN2 you_PPY might_VM make_VVI on_II a_AT1 text_NN1 ._. 
Example_NN1 If_CS you_PPY have_VH0 a_AT1 paragraph_NN1 on_II irony_NN1 in_II Conrad_NP1 's_GE &quot;_" Heart_NN1 of_IO Darkness_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, a_AT1 paragraph_NN1 on_II characterisation_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 paragraph_NN1 on_II narrative_JJ closure_NN1 ,_, you_PPY could_VM try_VVI to_TO link_VVI them_PPHO2 together_RL by_II talking_VVG more_RGR generally_RR about_II the_AT abstract_JJ relationship_NN1 between_II irony_NN1 ,_, characterisation_NN1 and_CC narrative_JJ closure._NNU 3.5_MC SIGNALLING_VVG YOUR_APPGE ATTITUDE_NN1 TOWARDS_II YOUR_APPGE OWN_DA ARGUMENT_NN1 As_CSA you_PPY construct_VV0 your_APPGE argument_NN1 ,_, you_PPY will_VM be_VBI obliged_VVN to_TO make_VVI judgements_NN2 about_II how_RGQ firmly_RR you_PPY are_VBR committed_VVN to_II each_DD1 of_IO its_APPGE ideas_NN2 ,_, and_CC how_RGQ strong_JJ the_AT evidence_NN1 is_VBZ for_IF believing_VVG them_PPHO2 ._. 
As_CSA you_PPY present_VV0 ideas_NN2 ,_, therefore_RR ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO consider_VVI issues_NN2 of_IO EPISTEMIC_JJ MODALITY_NN1 ._. 
Epistemic_JJ modality_NN1 (_( the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" epistemic_JJ &quot;_" means_NN &quot;_" to_TO do_VDI with_IW knowledge_NN1 &quot;_" )_) involves_VVZ various_JJ markers_NN2 in_II language_NN1 of_IO the_AT degree_NN1 of_IO certainty_NN1 or_CC possibility_NN1 a_AT1 speaker_NN1 or_CC writer_NN1 feels_VVZ towards_II what_DDQ is_VBZ being_VBG said_VVN ._. 
It_PPH1 includes_VVZ modal_JJ verbs_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" must_VM &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" may_VM &quot;_" ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 phrases_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ that_CST ..._... &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" it_PPH1 is_VBZ likely_JJ that_CST ..._... 
&quot;_" ._. A_AT1 range_NN1 of_IO adverbial_JJ expressions_NN2 ,_, including_VVG &quot;_" apparently_RR &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" actually_RR &quot;_" ,_, have_VH0 a_AT1 similar_JJ effect_NN1 ._. 
Two_MC different_JJ problematic_JJ situations_NN2 are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO arise_VVI as_CSA you_PPY present_VV0 your_APPGE argument_NN1 ._. 
The_AT first_MD is_VBZ that_DD1 what_DDQ you_PPY say_VV0 seems_VVZ obvious_JJ ;_; so_RR ,_, in_II slight_JJ embarrassment_NN1 ,_, you_PPY add_VV0 &quot;_" obviously_RR &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" of_RR21 course_RR22 &quot;_" implying_VVG &quot;_" of_RR21 course_RR22 everyone_PN1 knows_VVZ this_DD1 &quot;_" ._. 
The_AT second_MD situation_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST you_PPY feel_VV0 there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 risk_NN1 of_IO overstating_VVG the_AT line_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR pursuing_VVG ._. 
Consider_VV0 first_MD the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO adding_VVG &quot;_" of_RR21 course_RR22 &quot;_" to_II a_AT1 sentence_NN1 ._. 
George_NP1 Eliot_NP1 of_RR21 course_RR22 believed_VVN that_CST ..._... 
If_CS we_PPIS2 already_RR know_VV0 what_DDQ we_PPIS2 are_VBR being_VBG told_VVN as_CSA &quot;_" of_RR21 course_RR22 &quot;_" implies_VVZ then_RT the_AT question_NN1 immediately_RR arises_VVZ why_RRQ we_PPIS2 are_VBR being_VBG told_VVN again_RT ._. 
Sometimes_RT &quot;_" of_RR21 course_RR22 &quot;_" is_VBZ added_VVN not_XX because_CS the_AT information_NN1 is_VBZ obvious_JJ ,_, but_CCB rather_RR because_CS you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO create_VVI the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO being_VBG someone_PN1 so_RG deeply_RR familiar_JJ with_IW the_AT material_NN1 that_CST this_DD1 information_NN1 is_VBZ basic_JJ or_CC obvious_JJ ._. 
Consider_VV0 the_AT different_JJ impression_NN1 of_IO yourself_PPX1 which_DDQ you_PPY would_VM give_VVI if_CSW you_PPY wrote_VVD :_: Dickens_NP1 ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, was_VBDZ a_AT1 novelist_NN1 ._. 
As_II31 opposed_II32 to_II33 writing_NN1 :_: Dickens_NP1 ,_, of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, completed_VVD the_AT last_MD double_JJ instalment_NN1 of_IO Martin_NP1 Chuzzlewit_NP1 in_II the_AT middle_NN1 of_IO June_NPM1 1844_MC ._. 
As_CSA in_II most_DAT other_JJ areas_NN2 of_IO essay_NN1 writing_NN1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ no_AT fixed_JJ rule_NN1 governing_JJ use_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" of_RR21 course_RR22 &quot;_" ._. 
What_DDQ you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO do_VDI ,_, in_II using_VVG the_AT expression_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ to_TO anticipate_VVI what_DDQ effect_VV0 its_APPGE use_NN1 is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO have_VHI on_II your_APPGE probable_JJ readers_NN2 and_CC act_VV0 accordingly_RR ._. 
When_RRQ ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 claim_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR making_VVG looks_NN2 overstated_VVN (_( possibly_RR unsustainable_JJ in_II its_APPGE generalised_JJ form_NN1 ,_, or_CC stronger_JJR than_CSN the_AT evidence_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 properly_RR warrants_VVZ )_) ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO tone_VVI down_RP what_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR saying_VVG by_II using_VVG indicators_NN2 (_( HEDGES_NN2 )_) that_CST show_VV0 you_PPY recognise_VV0 the_AT difficulty_NN1 of_IO certainty_NN1 in_II the_AT area_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM replace_VVI simple_JJ statements_NN2 of_IO fact_NN1 or_CC opinion_NN1 with_IW hedges_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" it_PPH1 seems_VVZ likely_JJ that_CST ..._... &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" this_DD1 may_VM be_VBI ..._... &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" it_PPH1 is_VBZ reasonable_JJ to_TO suppose_VVI that_DD1 ..._... &quot;_" ,_, and_CC occasionally_RR with_IW &quot;_" relatively_RR &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" in_II effect_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" seemingly_RR &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" it_PPH1 seems_VVZ that_DD1 &quot;_" ._. 
Other_JJ useful_JJ words_NN2 here_RL are_VBR ,_, &quot;_" evidently_RR &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" rather_RR &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" somewhat_RR &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" generally_RR &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" on_II the_AT whole_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" can_VM appear_VVI to_II &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" arguably_RR &quot;_" ._. 
Take_VV0 special_JJ care_NN1 with_IW &quot;_" arguably_RR &quot;_" ,_, however_RR ._. 
This_DD1 word_NN1 works_VVZ well_RR as_II a_AT1 hedge_NN1 as_II21 regards_II22 a_AT1 passing_JJ topic_NN1 (_( e.g._REX &quot;_" this_DD1 is_VBZ arguably_RR also_RR the_AT case_NN1 in_II Aphra_NP1 Behn_NP1 's_GE other_JJ works_NN ..._... 
&quot;_" )_) ._. But_CCB if_CS you_PPY use_VV0 &quot;_" arguably_RR &quot;_" in_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 central_JJ or_CC major_JJ argument_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR making_VVG ,_, you_PPY invite_VV0 the_AT unspoken_JJ response_NN1 :_: &quot;_" Well_RR ,_, if_CS it_PPH1 's_VBZ arguable_JJ ,_, then_RT let_VM21 's_VM22 hear_VVI the_AT arguments_NN2 ,_, since_CS this_DD1 is_VBZ what_DDQ the_AT essay_NN1 is_VBZ supposed_JJ to_TO be_VBI about_RP ._. 
&quot;_" You_PPY should_VM also_RR note_VVI ,_, in_II using_VVG hedging_NN1 and_CC qualifying_JJ expressions_NN2 ,_, that_CST they_PPHS2 will_VM affect_VVI the_AT overall_JJ tone_NN1 or_CC REGISTER_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 (_( as_CSA we_PPIS2 shall_VM examine_VVI in_II the_AT next_MD chapter_NN1 )_) ._. 
They_PPHS2 may_VM suggest_VVI that_CST you_PPY have_VH0 no_AT confidence_NN1 in_II your_APPGE argument_NN1 or_CC even_RR that_CST you_PPY ca_VM n't_XX make_VVI up_RP your_APPGE mind_NN1 and_CC that_DD1 does_VDZ not_XX make_VVI for_IF much_DA1 of_IO an_AT1 argument._NNU 3.6_MC SUMMARY_NN1 ,_, SUGGESTIONS_NN2 AND_CC EXERCISES_VVZ Summary_NN1 In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 have_VH0 described_VVN the_AT different_JJ forms_NN2 an_AT1 argument_NN1 in_II literary_JJ studies_NN2 can_VM take_VVI ._. 
In_II any_DD argument_NN1 you_PPY develop_VV0 ,_, we_PPIS2 have_VH0 suggested_VVN that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ to_TO distinguish_VVI between_II views_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR taking_VVG for_IF granted_VVN ,_, views_VVZ you_PPY are_VBR directly_RR asserting_VVG and_CC views_NN2 with_IW which_DDQ you_PPY disagree_VV0 ._. 
By_II signalling_VVG clearly_RR the_AT significance_NN1 of_IO the_AT ideas_NN2 you_PPY present_VV0 and_CC the_AT attitude_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR adopting_VVG towards_II them_PPHO2 you_PPY enable_VV0 your_APPGE reader_NN1 to_TO follow_VVI the_AT essay_NN1 as_II a_AT1 coherent_JJ and_CC developing_JJ debate_NN1 ,_, in_II which_DDQ the_AT generalisations_NN2 and_CC conclusions_NN2 you_PPY finally_RR draw_VV0 will_VM seem_VVI reasonable_JJ and_CC justified_JJ ._. 
Specific_JJ suggestions_NN2 *_FU Remember_VV0 ,_, writing_VVG an_AT1 essay_NN1 means_VVZ arguing_VVG a_AT1 case_NN1 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 51_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Begin_VV0 work_NN1 by_II identifying_VVG the_AT problems_NN2 you_PPY hope_VV0 to_TO solve_VVI and_CC structure_NN1 the_AT essay_NN1 around_II them_PPHO2 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 51_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Get_VV0 into_II the_AT habit_NN1 of_IO routinely_RR asking_VVG a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO questions_NN2 about_II any_DD text_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 to_TO analyse_VVI (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 52_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Analysing_VVG the_AT structure_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 is_VBZ useful_JJ only_JJ if_CS you_PPY can_VM make_VVI something_PN1 of_IO it_PPH1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 linking_VVG it_PPH1 with_IW something_PN1 else_RR about_II the_AT text_NN1 in_II a_AT1 correlation_NN1 or_CC causal_JJ relation_NN1 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 53_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Organising_VVG an_AT1 essay_NN1 around_II a_AT1 pre-existing_JJ sequence_NN1 (_( such_II21 as_II22 historical_JJ order_NN1 )_) is_VBZ straightforward_JJ but_CCB often_RR not_XX the_AT most_RGT interesting_JJ or_CC useful_JJ option_NN1 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 54_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Explore_VV0 how_RRQ the_AT text_NN1 can_VM be_VBI understood_VVN according_II21 to_II22 a_AT1 classificatory_JJ system_NN1 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 545_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU If_CSW your_APPGE essay_NN1 works_VVZ by_II comparing_VVG other_JJ people_NN 's_GE arguments_NN2 be_VBI careful_JJ not_XX to_TO be_VBI too_RG simplificatory_JJ ,_, and_CC clearly_RR indicate_VV0 the_AT origin_NN1 of_IO each_DD1 argument_NN1 you_PPY present_VV0 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 56_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Consider_VV0 modifying_VVG a_AT1 text_NN1 as_II an_AT1 experiment_NN1 ,_, to_TO see_VVI how_RRQ it_PPH1 works_VVZ (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 56_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Material_NN1 for_IF your_APPGE essay_NN1 can_VM come_VVI from_II the_AT text_NN1 's_GE original_JJ historical_JJ context_NN1 ,_, or_CC through_II comparison_NN1 between_II texts_NN2 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 579_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Start_NN1 your_APPGE essay_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 statement_NN1 of_IO the_AT problem_NN1 you_PPY wish_VV0 to_TO investigate_VVI (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 61_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU As_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO finding_VVG the_AT best_JJT structure_NN1 for_IF your_APPGE essay_NN1 ,_, write_VV0 out_RP all_DB the_AT main_JJ points_NN2 you_PPY think_VV0 you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO make_VVI ,_, and_CC rearrange_VVI them_PPHO2 until_CS they_PPHS2 develop_VV0 as_II an_AT1 overall_JJ argument_NN1 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 5961_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Try_NN1 to_TO draw_VVI the_AT general_JJ significance_NN1 out_II21 of_II22 specific_JJ observations_NN2 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 56_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU It_NN1 may_VM be_VBI better_JJR to_TO discuss_VVI other_JJ people_NN 's_GE ideas_NN2 at_II the_AT end_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 601_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Know_VV0 your_APPGE presuppositions_NN2 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 625_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Think_VV0 through_RP the_AT implications_NN2 of_IO inserting_VVG words_NN2 like_II &quot;_" of_RR21 course_RR22 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" arguably_RR &quot;_" (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 678_MC )_) ._. 
Exercises_NN2 (_( 1_MC1 )_) Find_VV0 an_AT1 anthology_NN1 of_IO poetry_NN1 ,_, and_CC open_VV0 it_PPH1 at_II page_NN1 50_MC ;_; take_VV0 the_AT first_MD poem_NN1 on_II that_DD1 page_NN1 (_( all_DB of_IO it_PPH1 ,_, including_II any_DD part_NN1 before_II or_CC after_II page_NN1 50_MC )_) ,_, and_CC answer_VV0 the_AT eight_MC questions_NN2 on_II p._NNU 52_MC ,_, section_NN1 3.1._MC (_( 2_MC )_) Choose_VV0 a_AT1 poem_NN1 (_( the_AT same_DA one_PN1 as_CSA in_II exercise_NN1 1_MC1 if_CS you_PPY like_VV0 )_) ,_, and_CC put_VV0 the_AT title_NN1 after_II the_AT first_MD stanza_NN1 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 it_PPH1 is_VBZ in_II the_AT middle_NN1 of_IO the_AT poem_NN1 instead_II21 of_II22 at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY have_VH0 just_RR changed_VVN an_AT1 independent_JJ variable_NN1 ._. 
How_RRQ does_VDZ it_PPH1 change_VVI the_AT meaning_NN1 or_CC effect_NN1 on_II the_AT text_NN1 ,_, as_CS31 far_CS32 as_CS33 you_PPY as_II a_AT1 reader_NN1 can_VM tell_VVI ?_? 
(_( This_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT dependent_JJ variable_NN1 ._. )_) 
Briefly_RR explain_VV0 what_DDQ the_AT result_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 experiment_NN1 tells_VVZ you_PPY about_II the_AT function_NN1 of_IO the_AT title_NN1 in_II this_DD1 poem_NN1 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 56_MC )_) ._. 
(_( 3_MC )_) In_II 1902_MC the_AT first_MD major_JJ science_NN1 fiction_NN1 film_NN1 was_VBDZ made_VVN ,_, in_II France_NP1 :_: the_AT twenty-one-minute_JJ silent_JJ A_ZZ1 Trip_NN1 to_II the_AT Moon_NN1 ,_, by_II George_NP1 Mlis_NP1 ._. 
Look_VV0 up_RP 1902_MC in_II an_AT1 annals_NN2 or_CC book_NN1 of_IO dates_NN2 and_CC events_NN2 ,_, and_CC make_VV0 a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO ten_MC other_JJ events_NN2 or_CC publications_NN2 (_( historical_JJ ,_, artistic_JJ ,_, literary_JJ ,_, philosophical_JJ ,_, musical_JJ ,_, scientific_JJ ,_, etc._RA )_) from_II 1902_MC ._. 
Discuss_VV0 how_RRQ you_PPY could_VM refer_VVI to_II some_DD of_IO these_DD2 events_NN2 or_CC publications_NN2 if_CS you_PPY had_VHD to_TO write_VVI an_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II A_AT1 Trip_NN1 to_II the_AT Moon_NN1 in_II its_APPGE historical_JJ context._NNU (_( 4_MC )_) Pick_VV0 an_AT1 essay_NN1 topic_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 recently_RR completed_VVN ._. 
Using_VVG our_APPGE discussion_NN1 of_IO essay_NN1 types_NN2 above_RL (_( pp._NNU2 537_MC )_) ,_, decide_VV0 which_DDQ of_IO the_AT following_JJ types_NN2 your_APPGE essay_NN1 is_VBZ :_: DESCRIPTIVE_JJ If_CS so_RR ,_, how_RRQ is_VBZ it_PPH1 organised_VVN :_: line_NN1 by_II line_NN1 ?_? thematically_RR ?_? etc_RA ._. 
ARGUMENTATIVE_JJ If_CS so_RR ,_, what_DDQ are_VBR the_AT main_JJ conflicting_JJ positions_NN2 or_CC theories_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR evaluating_VVG ?_? 
EXPERIMENTAL_JJ If_CS so_RR ,_, what_DDQ did_VDD you_PPY actually_RR do_VDI to_TO provide_VVI evidence_NN1 that_CST might_VM persuade_VVI your_APPGE reader_NN1 ?_? 
Now_RT reconsider_VV0 the_AT question_NN1 you_PPY were_VBDR answering_VVG ._. 
Do_VD0 you_PPY now_RT think_VVI the_AT way_NN1 of_IO organising_VVG your_APPGE essay_NN1 was_VBDZ in_II fact_NN1 the_AT best_JJT way_NN1 of_IO approaching_VVG the_AT topic_NN1 ?_? 
Assess_VV0 possible_JJ alternatives._NNU (_( 5_MC )_) Pick_VV0 an_AT1 essay_NN1 question_NN1 (_( either_RR from_II our_APPGE list_NN1 in_II Chapter_NN1 1_MC1 ,_, or_CC from_II work_NN1 prescribed_VVN during_II your_APPGE course_NN1 )_) ._. 
List_NN1 on_II a_AT1 piece_NN1 of_IO paper_NN1 all_DB the_AT presuppositions_NN2 you_PPY think_VV0 the_AT title_NN1 contains_VVZ (_( as_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 done_VDN above_RL ,_, pp._NNU2 635_MC )_) ._. 
Now_RT underline_VV0 all_DB the_AT presuppositions_NN2 in_II your_APPGE list_NN1 which_DDQ seem_VV0 to_II you_PPY to_TO require_VVI justification_NN1 or_CC refutation_NN1 ,_, leaving_VVG others_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY feel_VV0 are_VBR relatively_RR uncontroversial_JJ ._. 
Now_RT consider_VV0 those_DD2 that_CST you_PPY did_VDD not_XX underline_VVI ._. 
Is_VBZ it_PPH1 possible_JJ to_TO identify_VVI the_AT considerations_NN2 which_DDQ lead_VV0 you_PPY to_TO believe_VVI that_CST these_DD2 presuppositions_NN2 do_VD0 n't_XX need_VVI justification_NN1 or_CC explanation_NN1 in_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 ?_? 
Register_VV0 :_: the_AT &quot;_" voice_NN1 &quot;_" you_PPY use_VV0 when_RRQ you_PPY write_VV0 So_RG far_RR ,_, we_PPIS2 have_VH0 looked_VVN at_II ways_NN2 of_IO getting_VVG started_VVN ,_, at_II researching_VVG your_APPGE ideas_NN2 and_CC at_II how_RRQ an_AT1 argument_NN1 is_VBZ structured_VVN ._. 
In_II the_AT next_MD three_MC chapters_NN2 we_PPIS2 look_VV0 more_RGR closely_RR at_II the_AT texture_NN1 of_IO essay-writing_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 we_PPIS2 consider_VV0 how_RRQ you_PPY develop_VV0 an_AT1 appropriate_JJ voice_NN1 to_TO write_VVI in_RP ,_, since_CS this_DD1 is_VBZ how_RRQ a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO yourself_PPX1 ,_, as_CSA the_AT writer_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ conveyed_VVN ._. 
Your_APPGE &quot;_" voice_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ achieved_VVN in_II two_MC main_JJ ways_NN2 ,_, and_CC we_PPIS2 discuss_VV0 each_DD1 in_II turn_NN1 :_: the_AT particular_JJ style_NN1 you_PPY adopt_VV0 and_CC more_RGR direct_JJ ways_NN2 of_IO referring_VVG to_II yourself_PPX1 and_CC addressing_VVG your_APPGE reader._NNU 4.1_MC CHOOSING_VVG A_AT1 REGISTER_NN1 WHICH_DDQ GIVES_VVZ YOU_PPY AN_AT1 APPROPRIATE_JJ VOICE_NN1 In_II different_JJ situations_NN2 we_PPIS2 write_VV0 and_CC speak_VV0 differently_RR ._. 
The_AT difference_NN1 is_VBZ one_MC1 of_IO REGISTER_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, a_AT1 birthday_NN1 card_NN1 greeting_NN1 is_VBZ written_VVN in_II a_AT1 different_JJ register_NN1 from_II a_AT1 legal_JJ contract_NN1 in_II that_DD1 it_PPH1 uses_VVZ a_AT1 different_JJ vocabulary_NN1 ,_, uses_VVZ a_AT1 different_JJ layout_NN1 on_II the_AT page_NN1 ,_, uses_VVZ rhyme_NN1 ,_, etc_RA ._. 
To_TO see_VVI that_CST this_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT case_NN1 ,_, annotate_VV0 each_DD1 term_NN1 below_RL to_TO say_VVI whether_CSW it_PPH1 belongs_VVZ to_II the_AT typical_JJ register_NN1 of_IO the_AT birthday_NN1 card_NN1 or_CC the_AT register_NN1 of_IO the_AT legal_JJ contract_NN1 (_( even_CS21 if_CS22 you_PPY have_VH0 never_RR seen_VVN a_AT1 legal_JJ contract_NN1 you_PPY can_VM probably_RR do_VDI this_DD1 )_) ._. 
Our_APPGE choice_NN1 of_IO register_NN1 when_CS we_PPIS2 write_VV0 displays_VVZ our_APPGE attitude_NN1 towards_II our_APPGE reader_NN1 and_CC towards_II the_AT subject_NN1 matter_NN1 we_PPIS2 are_VBR writing_VVG about_II ._. 
The_AT choice_NN1 in_II this_DD1 way_NN1 contributes_VVZ to_II the_AT VOICE_NN1 in_II which_DDQ we_PPIS2 write_VV0 (_( &quot;_" writing_VVG voice_NN1 &quot;_" here_RL alludes_VVZ to_II the_AT notion_NN1 of_IO speaking_VVG voice_NN1 ,_, in_II which_DDQ we_PPIS2 express_VV0 attitude_NN1 by_II intonation_NN1 ,_, tempo_NN1 and_CC other_JJ means_NN )_) ._. 
Imagine_VV0 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT consequences_NN2 of_IO writing_VVG a_AT1 birthday_NN1 card_NN1 in_II the_AT register_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 legal_JJ contract_NN1 (_( or_CC vice_RR21 versa_RR22 )_) ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ true_JJ that_CST such_DA rewriting_NN1 in_II unexpected_JJ registers_NN2 has_VHZ been_VBN used_VVN by_II literary_JJ writers_NN2 ,_, particularly_RR in_II the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 (_( James_NP1 Joyce_NP1 's_GE novel_JJ Ulysses_NP1 is_VBZ a_AT1 famous_JJ example_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 )_) ;_; but_CCB such_DA experimentation_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 convention_NN1 of_IO essay-writing_NN1 in_II literary_JJ studies_NN2 ._. 
Rather_RR ,_, the_AT convention_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 certain_JJ registers_NN2 are_VBR used_VVN consistently_RR in_II essays_NN2 ._. 
So_RR it_PPH1 is_VBZ helpful_JJ to_TO understand_VVI what_DDQ such_DA registers_NN2 consist_VV0 of_IO and_CC how_RRQ you_PPY create_VV0 them_PPHO2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR useful_JJ to_TO see_VVI how_RRQ you_PPY can_VM improvise_VVI at_II their_APPGE boundaries_NN2 if_CS you_PPY wish_VV0 to_TO ._. 
Investigating_VVG register_NN1 should_VM enable_VVI you_PPY to_TO develop_VVI a_AT1 style_NN1 that_CST observes_VVZ established_JJ conventions_NN2 but_CCB is_VBZ at_II the_AT same_DA time_VV0 not_XX too_RG disconnected_JJ from_II your_APPGE own_DA voice_NN1 or_CC sense_NN1 of_IO self_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 we_PPIS2 consider_VV0 some_DD norms_NN2 of_IO style_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ to_TO stress_VVI from_II the_AT outset_NN1 that_CST each_DD1 norm_NN1 can_VM (_( and_CC should_VM )_) be_VBI overruled_VVN ,_, for_IF specific_JJ purposes_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE own_DA ._. 
Initially_RR ,_, however_RR ,_, finding_VVG an_AT1 appropriate_JJ register_NN1 is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO involve_VVI accentuating_VVG aspects_NN2 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY already_RR see_VV0 as_CSA &quot;_" your_APPGE own_DA voice_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, perhaps_RR combined_VVN with_IW some_DD degree_NN1 of_IO imitation_NN1 of_IO one_MC1 or_CC more_DAR voices_NN2 you_PPY like_VV0 ._. 
Imitating_VVG the_AT voices_NN2 of_IO other_JJ writers_NN2 is_VBZ common_JJ in_II literary_JJ criticism_NN1 ._. 
There_EX has_VHZ been_VBN extensive_JJ imitation_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, of_IO the_AT vocabulary_NN1 and_CC style_NN1 of_IO the_AT critic_NN1 F.R._NNB Leavis_NP1 (_( e.g._REX in_II use_NN1 of_IO such_DA words_NN2 as_CSA &quot;_" equipoise_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" maturity_NN1 &quot;_" to_TO describe_VVI writers_NN2 '_GE qualities_NN2 ,_, or_CC of_IO such_DA phrases_NN2 as_CSA &quot;_" it_PPH1 seems_VVZ to_II me_PPIO1 that_DD1 ..._... 
&quot;_" )_) ._. More_RGR recently_RR ,_, there_EX has_VHZ been_VBN widespread_JJ imitation_NN1 of_IO styles_NN2 of_IO literary-theoretical_JJ writing_NN1 ,_, much_DA1 of_IO it_PPH1 read_VVD in_II translation_NN1 from_II French_NN1 (_( so_RG occasionally_RR incorporating_VVG features_NN2 of_IO French_JJ discourse_NN1 which_DDQ have_VH0 survived_VVN translation_NN1 )_) ._. 
These_DD2 forms_NN2 of_IO imitation_NN1 are_VBR not_XX surprising_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 has_VHZ always_RR been_VBN common_JJ for_IF students_NN2 of_IO literature_NN1 to_TO imitate_VVI their_APPGE teachers_NN2 '_GE styles_NN2 ,_, including_VVG in_RP seemingly_RR incidental_JJ respects_NN2 ._. 
Such_DA imitation_NN1 is_VBZ evident_JJ also_RR in_II traditions_NN2 (_( or_CC &quot;_" schools_NN2 &quot;_" )_) of_IO published_JJ criticism_NN1 ,_, where_CS influence_NN1 can_VM mean_VVI an_AT1 influence_NN1 of_IO style_NN1 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 of_IO ideas_NN2 ,_, beliefs_NN2 or_CC theories_NN2 ._. 
In_II fact_NN1 ,_, the_AT two_MC overlap_NN1 ,_, when_CS certain_JJ key_JJ words_NN2 are_VBR understood_VVN in_II senses_NN2 which_DDQ presume_VV0 familiarity_NN1 with_IW the_AT ways_NN2 they_PPHS2 have_VH0 previously_RR been_VBN used_VVN ._. 
One_MC1 example_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT term_NN1 &quot;_" Orientalism_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, which_DDQ now_RT has_VHZ a_AT1 specialised_JJ ,_, polemical_JJ meaning_NN1 ,_, following_VVG discussion_NN1 of_IO the_AT term_NN1 in_II Edward_NP1 Said_NP1 's_GE book_NN1 Orientalism_NN1 ._. 
On_II the_AT whole_NN1 ,_, when_CS you_PPY write_VV0 you_PPY are_VBR unlikely_JJ to_TO intend_VVI pastiche_NN1 (_( imitative_JJ adaptation_NN1 )_) or_CC caricature_NN1 (_( hostile_JJ or_CC critical_JJ adaptation_NN1 )_) ._. 
In_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO test_VVI that_CST you_PPY have_VH0 avoided_VVN these_DD2 ,_, try_VV0 reading_VVG your_APPGE writing_NN1 aloud_RR :_: in_RR21 general_RR22 ,_, if_CS you_PPY do_VD0 n't_XX feel_VVI comfortable_JJ saying_VVG something_PN1 aloud_RR ,_, it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI better_JJR not_XX to_TO write_VVI it_PPH1 ._. 
Readers_NN2 not_XX only_JJ teachers_NN2 and_CC examiners_NN2 ,_, but_CCB readers_NN2 generally_RR develop_VV0 such_DA sophisticated_JJ responses_NN2 to_II nuances_NN2 of_IO register_NN1 that_CST faked_VVD styles_NN2 are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI noticeable_JJ ._. 
So_RR such_DA styles_NN2 will_VM probably_RR be_VBI ineffective_JJ or_CC even_RR counterproductive_JJ ;_; and_CC they_PPHS2 are_VBR also_RR potentially_RR embarrassing_JJ to_II the_AT writer_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX to_TO say_VVI that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 &quot;_" natural_JJ &quot;_" style_NN1 for_IF you_PPY ;_; all_DB styles_NN2 are_VBR constructs_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT question_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX one_MC1 of_IO &quot;_" authentic_JJ &quot;_" versus_II &quot;_" faked_JJ &quot;_" but_CCB of_IO appropriateness._NNU 4.2_MC AN_AT1 ACADEMIC_JJ REGISTER_NN1 The_AT academic_JJ essay_NN1 or_CC dissertation_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 &quot;_" situation_NN1 &quot;_" which_DDQ has_VHZ its_APPGE own_DA appropriate_JJ register_NN1 ._. 
The_AT register_NN1 of_IO academic_JJ writing_NN1 is_VBZ influenced_VVN by_II several_DA2 different_JJ factors_NN2 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, certain_JJ things_NN2 conspire_VV0 to_TO give_VVI academic_JJ register_NN1 connotations_NN2 of_IO &quot;_" seriousness_NN1 &quot;_" :_: you_PPY are_VBR being_VBG assessed_VVN on_II your_APPGE writing_NN1 (_( a_AT1 serious_JJ matter_NN1 )_) and_CC you_PPY are_VBR writing_VVG about_II important_JJ things_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 culture_NN1 (_( a_AT1 serious_JJ topic_NN1 )_) ._. 
These_DD2 connotations_NN2 of_IO seriousness_NN1 lead_NN1 to_II academic_JJ writing_NN1 having_VHG a_AT1 rather_RG formal_JJ register_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ for_REX21 example_REX22 different_JJ from_II the_AT register_NN1 of_IO everyday_JJ speech_NN1 ._. 
Register-shifting_NN1 ,_, while_CS a_AT1 possibility_NN1 in_II certain_JJ sorts_NN2 of_IO text_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ discouraged_VVN in_II academic_JJ texts_NN2 because_CS it_PPH1 can_VM often_RR have_VHI the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO ironising_VVG your_APPGE writing_NN1 ,_, something_PN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ undesirable_JJ if_CS you_PPY have_VH0 to_TO demonstrate_VVI clearly_RR your_APPGE knowledge_NN1 and_CC ideas_NN2 ._. 
Academic_JJ register_NN1 is_VBZ formal_JJ ,_, but_CCB not_XX as_RG formal_JJ as_CSA legal_JJ or_CC religious_JJ language_NN1 ,_, with_IW their_APPGE archaic_JJ vocabularies_NN2 ;_; again_RT the_AT underlying_JJ idea_NN1 that_CST your_APPGE writing_NN1 should_VM be_VBI clear_JJ means_NN that_CST your_APPGE style_NN1 can_VM not_XX be_VBI too_RG obscure_JJ ._. 
More_RGR generally_RR ,_, the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST literary_JJ studies_NN2 is_VBZ sometimes_RT thought_VVN of_IO as_II a_AT1 general_JJ training_NN1 in_II thinking_VVG and_CC writing_NN1 means_VVZ that_CST you_PPY are_VBR expected_VVN to_TO be_VBI able_JK to_TO control_VVI how_RRQ you_PPY write_VV0 in_RR21 particular_RR22 ,_, that_CST you_PPY are_VBR able_JJ consistently_RR to_TO use_VVI a_AT1 particular_JJ appropriate_JJ register_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT main_JJ characteristics_NN2 of_IO the_AT register_NN1 appropriate_JJ for_IF academic_JJ writing_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST it_PPH1 does_VDZ not_XX resemble_VVI the_AT register_NN1 of_IO conversational_JJ speech_NN1 ._. 
Here_RL are_VBR some_DD of_IO the_AT features_NN2 of_IO the_AT register_NN1 of_IO conversational_JJ speech_NN1 which_DDQ an_AT1 academic_JJ register_NN1 avoids_VVZ :_: contractions_NN2 like_VV0 &quot;_" there_EX 's_VBZ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" it_PPH1 's_VBZ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" they_PPHS2 've_VH0 &quot;_" ,_, etc_RA ._. 
These_DD2 can_VM be_VBI replaced_VVN with_IW :_: &quot;_" there_EX is_VBZ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" it_PPH1 is_VBZ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" they_PPHS2 have_VH0 &quot;_" ,_, etc._RA emphasis_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ can_VM be_VBI expressed_VVN in_II non-academic_JJ writing_NN1 by_II italics_NN2 ,_, capitals_NN2 or_CC underlining._NNU exclamations_NN2 like_II &quot;_" How_RGQ awful_JJ the_AT line_NN1 is_VBZ !_! 
&quot;_" &quot;_" What_DDQ a_AT1 bad_JJ poem_NN1 this_DD1 is_VBZ !_! 
&quot;_" These_DD2 can_VM be_VBI removed_VVN altogether_RR ,_, or_CC replaced_VVN with_IW statements_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" in_II my_APPGE view_NN1 this_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 good_JJ poem_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
informal_JJ colloquialisms_NN2 like_II &quot;_" naff_JJ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" OK_RR &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" maybe_RR &quot;_" ._. 
These_DD2 can_VM be_VBI replaced_VVN with_IW other_JJ more_RGR formal_JJ terms_NN2 :_: &quot;_" unsuccessful_JJ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" acceptable_JJ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" perhaps_RR &quot;_" ._. 
In_II31 view_II32 of_II33 what_DDQ we_PPIS2 have_VH0 said_VVN about_II the_AT suitability_NN1 of_IO particular_JJ registers_NN2 for_IF writing_NN1 ,_, you_PPY may_VM be_VBI surprised_JJ that_CST we_PPIS2 ourselves_PPX2 are_VBR adopting_VVG a_AT1 relatively_RR conversational_JJ register_NN1 in_II this_DD1 book_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ because_CS we_PPIS2 hope_VV0 to_TO establish_VVI an_AT1 informality_NN1 that_CST we_PPIS2 feel_VV0 will_VM be_VBI suitable_JJ here_RL ,_, even_CS21 if_CS22 it_PPH1 might_VM be_VBI inappropriate_JJ in_II degree_NN1 coursework_NN1 ,_, in_II a_AT1 PhD_NN1 thesis_NN1 or_CC in_II a_AT1 research_NN1 monograph_NN1 ._. 
In_RR21 general_RR22 this_DD1 book_NN1 is_VBZ written_VVN in_II a_AT1 register_NN1 we_PPIS2 consider_VV0 appropriate_JJ for_IF a_AT1 textbook_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 type_NN1 ._. 
Textbooks_NN2 have_VH0 a_AT1 register_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE own_DA and_CC do_VD0 not_XX provide_VVI a_AT1 suitable_JJ model_NN1 for_IF imitating_VVG in_II your_APPGE essay-writing_NN1 ._. 
In_RR21 part_RR22 ,_, academic_JJ register_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 convention_NN1 you_PPY learn_VV0 to_TO adopt_VVI so_CS21 that_CS22 your_APPGE essays_NN2 &quot;_" sound_VV0 right_RR &quot;_" ._. 
At_RR21 least_RR22 some_DD of_IO the_AT elements_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, have_VH0 a_AT1 more_RGR important_JJ function_NN1 ._. 
While_CS the_AT first_MD of_IO the_AT four_MC examples_NN2 we_PPIS2 have_VH0 quoted_VVN seems_VVZ relatively_RR trivial_JJ ,_, the_AT final_NN1 two_MC have_VH0 more_DAR significance_NN1 ._. 
Our_APPGE second_MD and_CC third_MD illustrations_NN2 express_VV0 personal_JJ response_NN1 without_IW any_DD justification_NN1 ,_, explanation_NN1 or_CC apparent_JJ room_NN1 for_IF argument_NN1 ._. 
In_II doing_VDG so_RR ,_, they_PPHS2 replace_VV0 debate_NN1 with_IW assertion_NN1 ,_, and_CC pull_VV0 an_AT1 essay_NN1 away_II21 from_II22 patterns_NN2 of_IO reasoned_JJ argument_NN1 ._. 
Overall_RR ,_, most_DAT teachers_NN2 of_IO essay-writing_NN1 would_VM say_VVI that_DD1 academic_JJ register_NN1 involves_VVZ clarity_NN1 and_CC modern_JJ usage_NN1 ,_, coupled_VVN with_IW a_AT1 degree_NN1 of_IO formality_NN1 that_CST nevertheless_RR does_VDZ not_XX extend_VVI into_II pomposity_NN1 or_CC technical_JJ difficulty_NN1 ._. 
If_CS we_PPIS2 try_VV0 to_TO put_VVI that_DD1 description_NN1 more_RGR concretely_RR ,_, we_PPIS2 might_VM describe_VVI essay-_JJ writing_NN1 as_II involving_VVG a_AT1 standardised_JJ ,_, written_JJ variety_NN1 of_IO language_NN1 which_DDQ seeks_VVZ to_TO communicate_VVI clearly_RR while_CS following_VVG academic_JJ conventions_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" Standardisation_NN1 &quot;_" in_II this_DD1 context_NN1 means_VVZ a_AT1 restriction_NN1 imposed_VVN on_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO aspects_NN2 of_IO usage_NN1 which_DDQ are_VBR nevertheless_RR completely_RR appropriate_JJ in_II other_JJ circumstances_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 difficult_JJ question_NN1 remains_VVZ unanswered_JJ by_II the_AT notion_NN1 of_IO standardisation_NN1 ,_, however_RR :_: the_AT status_NN1 of_IO class_NN1 ,_, ethnic_JJ or_CC regional_JJ variation_NN1 ._. 
Consider_VV0 for_REX21 example_REX22 &quot;_" didnae_NN2 &quot;_" (_( =_FO &quot;_" did_VDD n't_XX &quot;_" )_) ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 regional_JJ variation_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" did_VDD n't_XX &quot;_" used_VVN by_II some_DD Scottish_JJ speakers_NN2 ._. 
Because_CS regional_JJ variations_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI more_RRR pronounced_VVN among_II working-class_JJ speakers_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR a_AT1 class_NN1 variation_NN1 ._. 
Putting_VVG it_PPH1 in_II an_AT1 academic_JJ essay_NN1 would_VM certainly_RR be_VBI unexpected_JJ ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 might_VM be_VBI possible_JJ to_TO claim_VVI that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 regional/class_JJ standard_JJ written_JJ form_NN1 ._. 
One_PN1 might_VM answer_VVI in_II this_DD1 case_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR a_AT1 typical_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO speech_NN1 ,_, so_RR should_VM probably_RR be_VBI analysed_VVN as_II a_AT1 contraction_NN1 and_CC for_IF this_DD1 reason_NN1 avoided_VVN in_II academic_JJ writing_NN1 even_CS21 if_CS22 one_PN1 accepts_VVZ the_AT idea_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 regional/class_JJ standard_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB now_RT consider_VV0 the_AT term_NN1 &quot;_" outwith_II &quot;_" (_( =_FO &quot;_" outside_RL &quot;_" )_) ._. 
This_DD1 rather_RG formal_JJ term_NN1 found_VVN in_II Scottish_JJ English_NN1 is_VBZ often_RR used_VVN in_II academic_JJ writing_NN1 in_II Scotland_NP1 ,_, and_CC would_VM seem_VVI to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 clear_JJ case_NN1 of_IO dialectal_JJ variation_NN1 between_II different_JJ standard_JJ academic_JJ registers._NNU 4.3_MC SENTENCE_NN1 LENGTH_NN1 AND_CC SENTENCE_NN1 COMPLEXITY_NN1 One_MC1 of_IO the_AT major_JJ differences_NN2 between_II speaking_VVG and_CC writing_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 speaking_NN1 relies_VVZ more_RRR on_II the_AT hearer_NN1 's_GE memory_NN1 than_CSN writing_NN1 does_VDZ ._. 
This_DD1 means_VVZ that_CST a_AT1 written_JJ sentence_NN1 can_VM be_VBI longer_JJR than_CSN a_AT1 spoken_JJ sentence_NN1 ._. 
Moreover_RR ,_, written_JJ sentences_NN2 can_VM use_VVI punctuation_NN1 as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO indicating_VVG structure_NN1 ,_, and_CC so_RR can_VM more_RGR easily_RR manage_VVI complex_JJ constructions_NN2 ._. 
Where_CS a_AT1 spoken_JJ sentence_NN1 is_VBZ long_JJ and_CC complicated_VVD it_PPH1 is_VBZ more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI PARATACTIC_JJ ;_; this_DD1 means_VVZ it_PPH1 is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 string_NN1 of_IO sentences_NN2 tied_VVN together_RL with_IW &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" ,_, or_CC &quot;_" but_CCB &quot;_" ._. 
A_AT1 written_JJ sentence_NN1 ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, can_VM more_RGR easily_RR be_VBI HYPOTACTIC_JJ ,_, which_DDQ means_VVZ that_CST it_PPH1 can_VM have_VHI complex_JJ relations_NN2 between_II its_APPGE parts_NN2 one_PN1 inside_II another_DD1 ,_, rather_CS21 than_CS22 just_RR one_MC1 after_II another_DD1 ._. 
Academic_JJ register_NN1 is_VBZ usually_RR characterised_VVN partly_RR by_II avoiding_VVG the_AT features_NN2 of_IO spoken_JJ register_NN1 ._. 
Does_VDZ this_DD1 therefore_RR mean_VVI that_CST you_PPY should_VM avoid_VVI short_JJ sentences_NN2 ?_? 
Certainly_RR ,_, there_EX are_VBR some_DD extremely_RR short_JJ sentences_NN2 (_( e.g._REX &quot;_" Yes_UH ._. 
&quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" I_PPIS1 do_VD0 ._. 
&quot;_" )_) which_DDQ can_VM be_VBI used_VVN only_RR occasionally_RR ,_, for_IF special_JJ effect_NN1 ._. 
On_II the_AT whole_NN1 ,_, though_CS ,_, relatively_RR short_JJ sentences_NN2 offer_VV0 the_AT advantage_NN1 of_IO helping_VVG you_PPY to_TO keep_VVI your_APPGE writing_NN1 clear_JJ and_CC understandable_JJ ._. 
If_CS short_JJ and_CC simple_JJ sentences_NN2 dominate_VV0 your_APPGE writing_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, it_PPH1 may_VM become_VVI monotonous_JJ ._. 
So_RR you_PPY should_VM entertain_VVI the_AT possibility_NN1 of_IO communicating_VVG more_RGR complex_JJ thoughts_NN2 by_II building_VVG more_RGR complex_JJ sentences_NN2 ._. 
Consider_VV0 this_DD1 extract_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ involves_VVZ a_AT1 sequence_NN1 of_IO short_JJ sentences_NN2 (_( we_PPIS2 have_VH0 added_VVN numbers_NN2 to_TO make_VVI the_AT sentences_NN2 easier_RRR to_TO identify_VVI )_) :_: (_( 1_MC1 )_) Both_RR Bront_NP1 and_CC Hardy_NP1 choose_VV0 to_TO present_VVI their_APPGE heroine_NN1 within_II an_AT1 organic_JJ structure._NNU (_( 2_MC )_) This_DD1 reflects_VVZ their_APPGE development._NNU (_( 3_MC )_) Themes_NN2 of_IO nature_NN1 and_CC setting_NN1 are_VBR apparent_JJ in_II both_RR novels._NNU (_( 4_MC )_) They_PPHS2 are_VBR used_VVN in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 the_AT heroines_NN2 '_GE development_NN1 in_II various_JJ ways_NN2 ._. 
To_TO bring_VVI about_RP greater_JJR stylistic_JJ variation_NN1 and_CC interest_NN1 ,_, the_AT extract_NN1 could_VM be_VBI rewritten_VVN ,_, by_II combining_VVG sentences_NN2 (_( 1_MC1 )_) and_CC (_( 2_MC )_) ,_, and_CC sentences_NN2 (_( 3_MC )_) and_CC (_( 4_MC )_) :_: As_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO reflecting_VVG the_AT development_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE heroines_NN2 ,_, both_RR Bront_NP1 and_CC Hardy_NP1 present_VV0 them_PPHO2 within_II an_AT1 organic_JJ structure_NN1 ._. 
Themes_NN2 of_IO nature_NN1 and_CC setting_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ are_VBR used_VVN in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 the_AT heroines_NN2 '_GE development_NN1 in_II various_JJ ways_NN2 ,_, are_VBR apparent_JJ in_II both_DB2 novels_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR possible_JJ to_TO combine_VVI sentences_NN2 using_VVG semicolons_NN2 ._. 
We_PPIS2 could_VM ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, replace_VV0 the_AT full_JJ stop_NN1 between_II the_AT two_MC sentences_NN2 of_IO our_APPGE rewritten_VVN version_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 semicolon_NN1 ,_, so_RR turning_VVG the_AT original_JJ four_MC short_JJ sentences_NN2 into_II a_AT1 single_JJ ,_, more_RGR complex_JJ sentence_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY do_VD0 come_VVI to_II a_AT1 limit_NN1 with_IW long_JJ sentences_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 single_JJ sentence_NN1 of_IO more_DAR than_CSN about_RG four_MC lines_NN2 puts_VVZ unreasonable_JJ demands_NN2 on_II your_APPGE reader_NN1 :_: Since_CS Etherege_NP1 (_( writing_VVG in_II a_AT1 later_JJR period_NN1 than_CSN Wycherley_NP1 and_CC recognising_VVG a_AT1 greater_JJR desire_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 new_JJ &quot;_" Man_NN1 of_IO Mode_NN1 &quot;_" )_) recognises_VVZ that_CST love_VV0 ,_, sex_NN1 and_CC inheritance_NN1 are_VBR still_RR important_JJ considerations_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ he_PPHS1 also_RR criticises_VVZ ,_, both_DB2 playwrights_NN2 can_VM be_VBI said_VVN to_TO expose_VVI hypocrisy_NN1 rather_CS21 than_CS22 improve_VVI society_NN1 ,_, as_CSA heroes_NN2 and_CC heroines_NN2 are_VBR constantly_RR undermined_VVN by_II the_AT contrasts_NN2 created_VVN in_II the_AT new_JJ social_JJ order_NN1 and_CC the_AT codes_NN2 of_IO morality_NN1 being_VBG set_VVN up_RP which_DDQ are_VBR both_RR critical_JJ and_CC celebratory_JJ ._. 
In_RR21 particular_RR22 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ usually_RR not_XX a_AT1 good_JJ idea_NN1 to_TO expand_VVI the_AT length_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 sentence_NN1 by_II inserting_VVG as_CSA in_II the_AT passage_NN1 above_II a_AT1 long_JJ PARENTHETICAL_NP1 (_( i.e._REX a_AT1 sentence_NN1 in_II brackets_NN2 or_CC between_II dashes_NN2 )_) ._. 
Parentheticals_NP1 can_VM usually_RR be_VBI lifted_VVN out_RP ,_, and_CC placed_VVN either_RR before_CS or_CC after_CS the_AT sentence_NN1 in_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 are_VBR embedded_VVN ,_, then_RT connected_VVN with_IW their_APPGE original_JJ context_NN1 by_II a_AT1 suitable_JJ linking_NN1 expression_NN1 (_( for_IF discussion_NN1 of_IO links_NN2 between_II sentences_NN2 ,_, see_VV0 Chapter_NN1 5_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 1005_MC )_) ._. 
4.4_MC REGISTER_NN1 CONSISTENCY_NN1 As_CSA has_VHZ been_VBN suggested_VVN above_RL ,_, there_EX are_VBR many_DA2 different_JJ styles_NN2 of_IO essay-writing_NN1 ._. 
While_CS the_AT influential_JJ critic_NN1 F.R._NNB Leavis_NP1 adopted_VVD in_II some_DD respects_NN2 an_AT1 intimate_JJ ,_, conversational_JJ tone_NN1 ,_, writing_VVG influenced_VVN by_II Structuralism_NN1 typically_RR adopts_VVZ a_AT1 seemingly_RR more_RGR dispassionate_JJ ,_, &quot;_" objective_JJ &quot;_" scientific_JJ voice_NN1 (_( e.g._REX &quot;_" at_II this_DD1 level_NN1 the_AT inscribed_JJ machinery_NN1 of_IO fixed_JJ subject_NN1 positions_NN2 is_VBZ threatened_VVN &quot;_" )_) ._. 
Either_DD1 of_IO these_DD2 styles_NN2 which_DDQ here_RL represent_VV0 different_JJ ends_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 spectrum_NN1 is_VBZ widely_RR accepted_VVN as_II a_AT1 norm_NN1 of_IO academic_JJ discourse_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB this_DD1 does_VDZ not_XX mean_VVI that_CST adopting_VVG a_AT1 register_NN1 is_VBZ simply_RR a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO choosing_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY need_VV0 to_TO bear_VVI in_II mind_NN1 that_CST style_NN1 links_VVZ up_RP with_IW more_RGR important_JJ beliefs_NN2 about_II what_DDQ literary_JJ analysis_NN1 is_VBZ for_IF (_( e.g._REX is_VBZ it_PPH1 a_AT1 form_NN1 of_IO humanistic_JJ debate_NN1 ,_, in_II which_DDQ case_NN1 conventions_NN2 of_IO gentle_JJ persuasion_NN1 should_VM be_VBI observed_VVN ;_; or_CC is_VBZ it_PPH1 investigative_JJ research_NN1 ,_, in_II which_DDQ case_NN1 more_RGR rigorous_JJ and_CC systematic_JJ discourse_NN1 is_VBZ required_VVN ?_? )_) ._. 
Whatever_DDQV choice_NN1 you_PPY make_VV0 stylistically_RR ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO maintain_VVI a_AT1 register_NN1 consistently_RR ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 (_( even_CS21 though_CS22 the_AT register_NN1 is_VBZ selected_VVN and_CC constructed_VVN )_) it_PPH1 appears_VVZ plausible_JJ as_II a_AT1 &quot;_" genuine_JJ &quot;_" voice_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 merely_RR an_AT1 unstable_JJ ,_, contrived_JJ style_NN1 ._. 
Register-drift_NN1 or_CC register-clash_NN1 ,_, where_CS forms_NN2 from_II one_MC1 register_NN1 surface_NN1 unexpectedly_RR in_II another_DD1 ,_, often_RR indicate_VV0 that_CST a_AT1 style_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX under_II control_NN1 ._. 
Sometimes_RT ,_, register_VV0 inconsistency_NN1 produces_VVZ unintended_JJ pastiche_NN1 and_CC humour_NN1 ,_, in_II the_AT same_DA way_NN1 that_CST direct_JJ imitation_NN1 of_IO published_JJ styles_NN2 can_VM ._. 
Consider_VV0 this_DD1 from_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II the_AT poem_NN1 &quot;_" Marriage_NN1 &quot;_" by_II Marianne_NP1 Moore_NP1 :_: Moore_NP1 states_VVZ her_APPGE case_NN1 combining_VVG wit_NN1 and_CC sharp_JJ ,_, almost_RR black_JJ ,_, humour_NN1 in_II attempting_VVG to_TO ridicule_VVI male_JJ vanity_NN1 in_II marital_JJ union_NN1 ._. 
Marriage_NN1 is_VBZ seen_VVN as_CSA despicable_JJ through_II the_AT force_NN1 and_CC longevity_NN1 of_IO the_AT poem_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, she_PPHS1 still_RR retains_VVZ a_AT1 trademark_NN1 in_II the_AT numerous_JJ quotes_NN2 and_CC sources_NN2 of_IO thought_NN1 she_PPHS1 incorporates_VVZ into_II the_AT text_NN1 ,_, providing_VVG ammunition_NN1 from_II scholarly_JJ sources_NN2 in_II proving_VVG her_APPGE point_NN1 ,_, even_CS21 if_CS22 it_PPH1 means_VVZ twisting_VVG what_DDQ they_PPHS2 say_VV0 to_TO fit_VVI her_APPGE point_NN1 of_IO view_NN1 ._. 
Notice_VV0 here_RL the_AT phrase_NN1 &quot;_" marital_JJ union_NN1 &quot;_" in_II the_AT first_MD sentence_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ no_RR21 doubt_RR22 used_VVN partly_RR to_TO avoid_VVI repeating_JJ &quot;_" marriage_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT title_NN1 of_IO the_AT poem_NN1 and_CC so_RR has_VHZ already_RR been_VBN used_VVN more_DAR than_CSN once_RR ._. 
But_CCB the_AT phrase_NN1 used_VVD instead_RR (_( &quot;_" marital_JJ union_NN1 &quot;_" )_) introduces_VVZ another_DD1 (_( religious_JJ or_CC moral_JJ ?_? )_) register_VV0 that_CST clashes_NN2 with_IW the_AT rest_NN1 of_IO the_AT paragraph_NN1 ._. 
Consider_VV0 ,_, too_RR ,_, the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" longevity_NN1 &quot;_" in_II the_AT next_MD sentence_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ difficult_JJ to_TO make_VVI sense_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 word_NN1 here_RL (_( since_CS &quot;_" longevity_NN1 &quot;_" means_VVZ &quot;_" length_NN1 of_IO life_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, rather_CS21 than_CS22 simply_RR &quot;_" length_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, and_CC is_VBZ difficult_JJ to_TO apply_VVI ,_, except_CS metaphorically_RR ,_, to_II a_AT1 poem_NN1 )_) ._. 
The_AT effort_NN1 to_TO produce_VVI a_AT1 technical_JJ or_CC elevated_JJ alternative_NN1 to_II &quot;_" length_NN1 &quot;_" results_NN2 here_RL only_RR in_II a_AT1 comic_JJ effect_NN1 (_( a_AT1 sort_NN1 of_IO MALAPROPISM_NP1 ,_, or_CC effect_NN1 of_IO trying_VVG to_TO use_VVI words_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR imperfectly_RR understood_VVN )_) ._. 
Finally_RR ,_, consider_VV0 the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" quotes_VVZ &quot;_" in_II the_AT third_MD sentence_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT common_JJ metaphorical_JJ senses_NN2 of_IO &quot;_" trademark_NN1 &quot;_" (_( meaning_VVG &quot;_" a_AT1 distinctive_JJ feature_NN1 or_CC characteristic_NN1 &quot;_" )_) and_CC &quot;_" ammunition_NN1 &quot;_" (_( meaning_VVG &quot;_" some_DD powerful_JJ means_NN of_IO support_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ;_; these_DD2 words_NN2 introduce_VV0 an_AT1 element_NN1 of_IO informality_NN1 especially_RR &quot;_" quotes_VVZ &quot;_" ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ a_AT1 marked_JJ alternative_NN1 to_II &quot;_" quotations_NN2 &quot;_" which_DDQ pulls_VVZ the_AT paragraph_NN1 in_II exactly_RR the_AT opposite_JJ direction_NN1 from_II the_AT upward_JJ shift_NN1 in_II register_NN1 sought_VVN in_II &quot;_" marital_JJ union_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
The_AT resulting_JJ tension_NN1 in_II the_AT register_NN1 makes_VVZ the_AT paragraph_NN1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 inconsistent_JJ and_CC slightly_RR comical._NNU 4.5_MC SIGNALLING_NN1 ATTITUDE_NN1 TOWARDS_II YOUR_APPGE READER_NN1 AND_CC TOWARDS_II WRITERS_NN2 YOU_PPY ARE_VBR DISCUSSING_VVG Aspects_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE chosen_JJ register_NN1 signal_NN1 your_APPGE attitude_NN1 towards_II your_APPGE reader_NN1 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 ,_, sometimes_RT ,_, towards_II the_AT writer(s)_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR discussing_VVG ._. 
Take_VV0 care_NN1 not_XX to_TO condescend_VVI to_II your_APPGE reader_NN1 (_( e.g._REX &quot;_" the_AT reader_NN1 would_VM do_VDI well_RR to_TO consider_VVI this_DD1 point_NN1 ..._... 
&quot;_" )_) ._. Equally_RR ,_, you_PPY should_VM try_VVI to_TO avoid_VVI condescending_JJ to_TO ,_, or_CC appearing_VVG to_TO patronise_VVI ,_, the_AT writer_NN1 being_VBG discussed_VVN (_( e.g._REX &quot;_" Keats_NP1 is_VBZ to_TO be_VBI congratulated_VVN for_IF his_APPGE use_NN1 of_IO rhyme_NN1 ..._... 
&quot;_" )_) ._. Because_CS exam_NN1 questions_NN2 and_CC essay_NN1 titles_NN2 often_RR ask_VV0 you_PPY to_TO judge_VVI texts_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI difficult_JJ to_TO avoid_VVI such_DA patronising_JJ effects_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB pointing_VVG out_RP limitations_NN2 in_II a_AT1 writer_NN1 can_VM sometimes_RT seem_VVI arrogant_JJ ,_, or_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 condescending_JJ ,_, as_CSA in_II this_DD1 extract_NN1 :_: At_II times_NNT2 Eliot_NP1 is_VBZ too_RG confusing_JJ ,_, too_RG abstract_JJ and_CC too_RG well_RR read_VVN ,_, but_CCB his_APPGE poems_NN2 initially_RR only_RR demand_VV0 a_AT1 first_MD response_NN1 or_CC simply_RR an_AT1 appreciation_NN1 of_IO the_AT words_NN2 ,_, their_APPGE structure_NN1 ,_, sound_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 ._. 
Eliot_NP1 uses_VVZ at_II times_NNT2 a_AT1 simplistic_JJ traditional_JJ form_NN1 which_DDQ incorporates_VVZ elements_NN2 of_IO modernism_NN1 ,_, i.e._REX the_AT subject_NN1 matter_NN1 providing_VVG a_AT1 quirky_JJ pattern_NN1 common_JJ in_II some_DD poems_NN2 ._. 
Notice_VV0 in_II this_DD1 extract_NN1 the_AT effect_NN1 produced_VVN by_II the_AT repeated_JJ word_NN1 &quot;_" too_RR &quot;_" ,_, which_DDQ suggests_VVZ a_AT1 slightly_RR dismissive_JJ superiority_NN1 on_II41 the_II42 part_II43 of_II44 the_AT writer_NN1 an_AT1 effect_NN1 reinforced_VVN by_II the_AT words_NN2 &quot;_" simplistic_JJ &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" quirky_JJ &quot;_" ._. 
Usually_RR your_APPGE criticisms_NN2 of_IO literature_NN1 will_VM be_VBI based_VVN on_II your_APPGE experience_NN1 as_II a_AT1 reader_NN1 ,_, not_XX on_II your_APPGE own_DA skills_NN2 as_II a_AT1 literary_JJ writer_NN1 ._. 
Accordingly_RR ,_, you_PPY can_VM show_VVI your_APPGE reader_NN1 that_CST your_APPGE critical_JJ judgements_NN2 are_VBR based_VVN on_II what_DDQ you_PPY know_VV0 has_VHZ been_VBN achieved_VVN by_II other_JJ writers_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 read_VVN (_( effects_NN2 which_DDQ can_VM therefore_RR be_VBI compared_VVN with_IW each_PPX221 other_PPX222 )_) ._. 
In_II this_DD1 way_NN1 ,_, you_PPY reduce_VV0 the_AT impression_NN1 that_CST you_PPY are_VBR judging_VVG writing_NN1 by_II a_AT1 known_JJ literary_JJ writer_NN1 as_CSA &quot;_" unsuccessful_JJ &quot;_" in_II direct_JJ comparison_NN1 with_IW your_APPGE own_DA capabilities_NN2 or_CC achievements._NNU 4.6_MC EXPRESSING_VVG TASTE_NN1 AND_CC VALUE_NN1 Representing_VVG your_APPGE feelings_NN2 or_CC responses_NN2 to_II a_AT1 passage_NN1 can_VM also_RR present_VVI register_NN1 difficulties_NN2 ._. 
Many_DA2 conventional_JJ literary-critical_JJ terms_NN2 for_IF representing_VVG feeling_NN1 can_VM sound_VVI dated_JJ ,_, affected_VVN ,_, or_CC even_RR a_AT1 parody_NN1 of_IO literary_JJ writing_NN1 or_CC reviewing_VVG :_: &quot;_" forceful_JJ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" affecting_VVG &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" tellingly_RR apt_JJ &quot;_" ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT more_RGR neutral_JJ (_( sometimes_RT ironic_JJ or_CC euphemistic_JJ )_) &quot;_" interesting_JJ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" original_JJ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" thought-provoking_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, or_CC &quot;_" persuasive_JJ &quot;_" ._. 
One_MC1 alternative_NN1 to_II such_DA phrases_NN2 lies_VVZ in_II expressions_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE own_DA which_DDQ are_VBR intended_VVN to_TO convey_VVI more_RGR genuine_JJ ,_, original_JJ response_NN1 ,_, but_CCB which_DDQ within_II the_AT overall_JJ register_NN1 of_IO academic_JJ essay-writing_NN1 can_VM sound_VVI uncritical_JJ or_CC even_RR gushing_VVG :_: &quot;_" brilliant_JJ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" fantastic_JJ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" really_RR wonderful_JJ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" quite_RG magical_JJ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" unbelievably_RR beautiful_JJ &quot;_" ._. 
The_AT vocabulary_NN1 of_IO evaluation_NN1 ,_, especially_RR praise_VV0 ,_, is_VBZ so_RG heavily_RR used_VVN in_II speech_NN1 including_VVG in_II HYPERBOLE_NP1 ,_, or_CC exaggerated_JJ forms_NN2 that_CST it_PPH1 can_VM take_VVI on_RP surprising_JJ effects_NN2 in_II more_RGR formal_JJ ,_, written_JJ contexts_NN2 ._. 
Consider_VV0 the_AT following_JJ ,_, apparently_RR straightforward_JJ sentence_NN1 :_: There_EX are_VBR many_DA2 concerns_NN2 that_CST make_VV0 the_AT book_NN1 very_RG interesting_JJ indeed_RR ._. 
By_II surrounding_VVG the_AT adjective_NN1 &quot;_" interesting_JJ &quot;_" with_IW two_MC intensifiers_NN2 &quot;_" very_JJ &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" indeed_RR &quot;_" the_AT writer_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO recognise_VVI that_CST the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" interesting_VVG &quot;_" itself_PPX1 is_VBZ somehow_RR inadequate_JJ ._. 
In_II these_DD2 circumstances_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ better_JJR to_TO select_VVI a_AT1 different_JJ adjective_NN1 (_( or_CC more_RGR extended_JJ description_NN1 )_) in_II the_AT first_MD place_NN1 ,_, and_CC so_RR be_VBI able_JK to_TO dispense_VVI with_IW the_AT &quot;_" very_JJ &quot;_" and_CC the_AT &quot;_" indeed_RR &quot;_" ._. 
In_II literary_JJ criticism_NN1 ,_, statements_NN2 of_IO praise_NN1 are_VBR conventionally_RR handled_VVN in_II a_AT1 low-key_JJ way_NN1 ,_, often_RR by_II slipping_VVG in_II a_AT1 word_NN1 which_DDQ indicates_VVZ skill_NN1 ,_, like_II the_AT italicised_JJ adjectives_NN2 and_CC adverbs_NN2 in_II these_DD2 examples_NN2 :_: In_II Bleak_JJ House_NN1 ,_, Dickens_NP1 is_VBZ careful_JJ not_XX to_TO represent_VVI Chancery_NN1 as_CSA ..._... 
Toni_NP1 Morrison_NP1 deftly_RR handles_VVZ the_AT issue_NN1 of_IO ..._... 
The_AT second_MD stanza_NN1 subtly_RR introduces_VVZ the_AT theme_NN1 of_IO ..._... 
These_DD2 words_NN2 effectively_RR convey_VV0 critical_JJ approval_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI careful_JJ in_II using_VVG them_PPHO2 ,_, because_CS they_PPHS2 can_VM introduce_VVI meanings_NN2 you_PPY may_VM not_XX intend_VVI ._. 
The_AT first_MD example_NN1 above_RL ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, implies_VVZ that_CST Dickens_NP1 took_VVD special_JJ care_NN1 not_XX to_TO represent_VVI Chancery_NN1 in_II a_AT1 particular_JJ way_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ something_PN1 we_PPIS2 can_VM never_RR know_VVI (_( we_PPIS2 can_VM not_XX know_VVI what_DDQ was_VBDZ going_VVG on_RP in_II Dickens_NP1 's_GE head_NN1 )_) ._. 
Many_DA2 literary_JJ theories_NN2 deny_VV0 the_AT possibility_NN1 of_IO talking_VVG about_II intention_NN1 ;_; so_CS you_PPY should_VM be_VBI careful_JJ especially_RR if_CS your_APPGE essay_NN1 assumes_VVZ one_MC1 of_IO these_DD2 theories_NN2 not_XX to_TO let_VVI your_APPGE language_NN1 make_VVI claims_NN2 that_CST you_PPY do_VD0 not_XX intend_VVI ._. 
The_AT third_MD of_IO the_AT examples_NN2 above_RL suggests_VVZ that_CST the_AT poem_NN1 is_VBZ being_VBG subtle_JJ (_( whereas_CS in_II fact_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT author_NN1 though_CS again_RT ,_, this_DD1 is_VBZ arguably_RR a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO unknowable_JJ intention_NN1 )_) ;_; use_NN1 of_IO such_DA personification_NN1 involves_VVZ a_AT1 minor_JJ lapse_NN1 in_II logic_NN1 which_DDQ you_PPY should_VM be_VBI aware_JJ of_IO ,_, even_CS21 if_CS22 you_PPY decide_VV0 that_CST the_AT final_JJ effect_NN1 is_VBZ worth_II it._NNU 4.7_MC TECHNICALITY_NP1 Literary_JJ critics_NN2 vary_VV0 in_RP how_RGQ technical_JJ they_PPHS2 think_VV0 literary_JJ criticism_NN1 should_VM be_VBI ._. 
Running_VVG through_II the_AT history_NN1 of_IO literary_JJ criticism_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 series_NN of_IO debates_NN2 over_II the_AT connection_NN1 (_( or_CC contrast_NN1 )_) between_II literature_NN1 and_CC philosophy_NN1 ,_, and_CC between_II the_AT aesthetic_JJ imagination_NN1 and_CC science_NN1 ._. 
The_AT result_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 range_NN1 of_IO different_JJ genres_NN2 of_IO literary_JJ criticism_NN1 and_CC literary_JJ theory_NN1 ,_, to_II some_DD extent_NN1 distinguished_VVN by_II register_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT important_JJ differences_NN2 between_II the_AT registers_NN2 involves_VVZ the_AT use_NN1 of_IO TECHNICAL_JJ TERMS_NN2 ._. 
The_AT term_NN1 &quot;_" donor_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, is_VBZ specific_JJ to_II a_AT1 genre_NN1 which_DDQ we_PPIS2 might_VM call_VVI &quot;_" writing_VVG about_II narrative_NN1 in_II a_AT1 tradition_NN1 following_II Vladimir_NP1 Propp_NP1 &quot;_" ;_; and_CC the_AT term_NN1 &quot;_" the_AT Imaginary_JJ &quot;_" is_VBZ specific_JJ to_II the_AT genre_NN1 &quot;_" recent_JJ criticism_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
Sometimes_RT the_AT same_DA term_NN1 means_VVZ different_JJ things_NN2 in_II different_JJ genres_NN2 for_REX21 example_REX22 &quot;_" discourse_NN1 &quot;_" has_VHZ one_MC1 meaning_NN1 in_II the_AT genre_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" post-structuralist_JJ literary_JJ theory_NN1 &quot;_" but_CCB a_AT1 different_JJ meaning_NN1 in_II the_AT genre_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" stylistics_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
Then_RT again_RT ,_, there_EX are_VBR other_JJ genres_NN2 which_DDQ try_VV0 to_TO avoid_VVI using_VVG any_DD technical_JJ terms_NN2 at_RR21 all_RR22 ,_, in_II the_AT belief_NN1 that_CST literary_JJ studies_NN2 should_VM be_VBI accessible_JJ to_II all_DB without_IW special_JJ training_NN1 in_II a_AT1 professional_JJ vocabulary_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA you_PPY will_VM certainly_RR need_VVI to_TO use_VVI technical_JJ terms_NN2 at_II some_DD point_NN1 in_II your_APPGE writing_NN1 ,_, you_PPY inevitably_RR have_VH0 to_TO face_VVI the_AT two_MC main_JJ problems_NN2 they_PPHS2 present_VV0 ._. 
The_AT first_MD is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO ensuring_VVG that_CST your_APPGE reader_NN1 knows_VVZ which_DDQ words_NN2 are_VBR the_AT technical_JJ terms_NN2 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM solve_VVI this_DD1 problem_NN1 by_II putting_VVG such_DA terms_NN2 in_II inverted_JJ commas_NN2 when_CS you_PPY first_MD introduce_VV0 them_PPHO2 ._. 
The_AT second_NNT1 ,_, more_RGR difficult_JJ problem_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO ensuring_VVG that_CST your_APPGE reader_NN1 understands_VVZ what_DDQ your_APPGE technical_JJ terms_NN2 mean_VV0 ._. 
To_TO solve_VVI this_DD1 you_PPY have_VH0 to_TO make_VVI it_PPH1 clear_RR what_DDQ genre_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG you_PPY are_VBR working_VVG in_II (_( which_DDQ is_VBZ partly_RR a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO the_AT overall_NN1 register_VV0 you_PPY establish_VV0 )_) ;_; the_AT technical_JJ terms_NN2 will_VM then_RT be_VBI understood_VVN according_II21 to_II22 the_AT conventions_NN2 of_IO that_DD1 genre_NN1 ._. 
Sometimes_RT ,_, despite_II this_DD1 strategy_NN1 ,_, you_PPY will_VM need_VVI to_TO use_VVI a_AT1 term_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ not_XX part_NN1 of_IO the_AT conventional_JJ fabric_NN1 of_IO discourse_NN1 in_II which_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR working_VVG ._. 
In_II this_DD1 case_NN1 you_PPY should_VM offer_VVI a_AT1 GLOSS_NN1 (_( i.e._REX an_AT1 explanation_NN1 or_CC paraphrase_NN1 )_) ,_, as_CSA in_II the_AT following_JJ example_NN1 (_( the_AT gloss_NN1 is_VBZ italicised_VVN )_) :_: In_II these_DD2 lines_NN2 of_IO the_AT poem_NN1 ,_, the_AT &quot;_" structural_JJ parallelism_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, or_CC equivalence_NN1 of_IO grammatical_JJ structure_NN1 between_II the_AT two_MC phrases_NN2 ,_, makes_VVZ us_PPIO2 consider_VVI the_AT two_MC phrases_NN2 synonymous_JJ ._. 
As_CS31 long_CS32 as_CS33 they_PPHS2 do_VD0 not_XX become_VVI too_RG obtrusive_JJ ,_, such_DA glosses_NN2 serve_VV0 to_TO embed_VVI technical_JJ terms_NN2 effectively_RR even_RR within_II a_AT1 register_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ in_II other_JJ respects_NN2 informal_JJ ,_, or_CC even_RR impressionistic_JJ ._. 
When_CS you_PPY first_MD introduce_VV0 a_AT1 technical_JJ term_NN1 which_DDQ needs_VVZ explanation_NN1 ,_, either_RR explain_VV0 it_PPH1 immediately_RR or_CC indicate_VV0 that_CST you_PPY will_VM explain_VVI it_PPH1 shortly_RR ._. 
Your_APPGE reader_NN1 will_VM then_RT know_VVI that_CST you_PPY are_VBR not_XX presuming_VVG that_CST she_PPHS1 or_CC he_PPHS1 knows_VVZ what_DDQ the_AT term_NN1 means_VVZ ._. 
Nevertheless_RR ,_, one_MC1 problem_NN1 with_IW using_VVG glosses_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO decide_VVI which_DDQ terms_VVZ to_TO gloss_VVI ;_; some_DD terms_NN2 will_VM have_VHI conventional_JJ meanings_NN2 in_II the_AT genre_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR writing_VVG in_RP ,_, while_CS other_JJ terms_NN2 like_II &quot;_" synonymous_JJ &quot;_" in_II the_AT above_JJ quotation_NN1 will_VM be_VBI common_JJ in_II non-technical_JJ discourse_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM get_VVI help_NN1 with_IW deciding_VVG whether_CSW to_TO explain_VVI a_AT1 term_NN1 by_II consulting_VVG a_AT1 dictionary_NN1 of_IO critical_JJ terms_NN2 ,_, to_TO see_VVI which_DDQ terms_VVZ other_JJ people_NN the_AT dictionary_NN1 's_GE editor_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 have_VH0 decided_VVN merit_NN1 explanation_NN1 ._. 
In_RR21 general_RR22 ,_, technical_JJ description_NN1 is_VBZ only_RR appropriate_JJ if_CS it_PPH1 illustrates_VVZ a_AT1 point_NN1 in_II your_APPGE argument_NN1 ,_, as_CSA can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN from_II problems_NN2 in_II the_AT following_JJ excerpt_NN1 :_: The_AT sonnet_NN1 structure_NN1 is_VBZ appropriate_JJ to_II the_AT subject_NN1 ._. 
The_AT rhyme_NN1 scheme_NN1 of_IO the_AT sonnet_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX recognizable_JJ as_CSA being_VBG either_RR a_AT1 Shakespearean_JJ or_CC Petrarchan_NP1 sonnet_NN1 ;_; the_AT scheme_NN1 is_VBZ ababababcccdcd_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, this_DD1 is_VBZ with_IW half-rhymes_NN2 which_DDQ sometimes_RT only_RR vaguely_RR go_VV0 together_RL ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 &quot;_" shine_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" join_VV0 &quot;_" ._. 
This_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO uncomfortable_JJ rhyming_NN1 creates_VVZ the_AT impression_NN1 of_IO the_AT author_NN1 having_VHG difficulty_NN1 weaving_NN1 his_PPGE ,_, or_CC her_PPHO1 ,_, emotions_NN2 ._. 
One_MC1 problem_NN1 here_RL is_VBZ that_DD1 &quot;_" shine_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" join_NN1 &quot;_" were_VBDR much_RR closer_JJR to_II rhyming_NN1 when_CS this_DD1 eighteenth-century_JJ poem_NN1 was_VBDZ written_VVN than_CSN they_PPHS2 are_VBR now_RT ._. 
Far_RG more_RGR important_JJ ,_, though_CS ,_, is_VBZ the_AT problem_NN1 that_CST there_EX is_VBZ no_AT reason_NN1 to_TO assume_VVI that_CST half-rhymes_NN2 signify_VV0 difficulty_NN1 in_II organising_VVG emotions_NN2 ,_, or_CC that_CST a_AT1 formally_RR ambiguous_JJ sonnet_NN1 is_VBZ particularly_RR &quot;_" appropriate_JJ &quot;_" to_II an_AT1 elegy_NN1 ._. 
Without_IW the_AT case_NN1 for_IF these_DD2 assumptions_NN2 being_VBG established_VVN ,_, the_AT formal_JJ description_NN1 merely_RR signals_VVZ that_CST the_AT writer_NN1 knows_VVZ roughly_RR what_DDQ a_AT1 sonnet_NN1 is._NNU 4.8_MC DISTANCING_VVG YOURSELF_PPX1 FROM_II OTHER_JJ PEOPLE_NN 'S_GE TERMS_NN2 When_CS introduced_VVN for_IF the_AT first_MD time_NNT1 ,_, technical_JJ terms_NN2 can_VM be_VBI helpfully_RR identified_VVN by_II having_VHG inverted_JJ commas_NN2 round_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
This_DD1 shows_VVZ that_CST they_PPHS2 are_VBR words_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR mentioning_VVG ,_, or_CC borrowing_VVG from_II another_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO discourse_NN1 ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 words_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR using_VVG &quot;_" in_II your_APPGE own_DA voice_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
Another_DD1 ,_, contrasting_JJ function_NN1 served_VVN by_II inverted_JJ commas_NN2 (_( besides_RR direct_JJ quotation_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ discussed_VVN below_RL ,_, Chapter_NN1 5_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 1057_MC )_) is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO distancing_VVG you_PPY from_II an_AT1 expression_NN1 ._. 
Sometimes_RT this_DD1 is_VBZ desirable_JJ because_CS the_AT expression_NN1 seems_VVZ awkward_JJ or_CC inadequate_JJ ;_; sometimes_RT it_PPH1 signals_VVZ that_CST the_AT expression_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX fit_VVI in_RP with_IW the_AT rest_NN1 of_IO the_AT style_NN1 (_( e.g._REX because_II21 of_II22 its_APPGE register_NN1 )_) ._. 
Such_DA inverted_JJ commas_NN2 are_VBR often_RR called_VVN SCARE_NN1 QUOTES_NN2 ,_, and_CC are_VBR used_VVN especially_RR in_II philosophically-inspired_JJ criticism_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ sceptical_JJ about_II the_AT customary_JJ senses_NN2 we_PPIS2 give_VV0 to_II words_NN2 ._. 
The_AT scare_NN1 quotes_NN2 sound_VV0 the_AT alarm_NN1 ,_, and_CC so_RG alert_JJ readers_NN2 to_II the_AT idea_NN1 that_CST something_PN1 is_VBZ deficient_JJ or_CC inappropriate_JJ about_II the_AT word_NN1 being_VBG used_VVN ._. 
Take_VV0 care_NN1 ,_, however_RR ._. 
While_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ valuable_JJ to_TO show_VVI your_APPGE awareness_NN1 of_IO complexities_NN2 in_II the_AT words_NN2 through_II which_DDQ we_PPIS2 conceptualise_VV0 ,_, scare_VV0 quotes_NN2 may_VM not_XX be_VBI the_AT best_JJT way_NN1 of_IO doing_VDG so_RR ._. 
In_II some_DD cases_NN2 ,_, consulting_VVG a_AT1 thesaurus_NN1 will_VM offer_VVI an_AT1 alternative_NN1 ._. 
In_II other_JJ cases_NN2 ,_, explicit_JJ discussion_NN1 of_IO the_AT difficulties_NN2 presented_VVN by_II the_AT expression_NN1 is_VBZ more_RGR helpful_JJ ,_, if_CS this_DD1 does_VDZ not_XX distract_VVI too_RG much_DA1 from_II the_AT progression_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE argument_NN1 ._. 
Remember_VV0 that_CST scare_VV0 quotes_NN2 themselves_PPX2 are_VBR simply_RR disclaimers_NN2 (_( &quot;_" this_DD1 is_VBZ n't_XX my_APPGE word_NN1 ,_, so_RR do_VD0 n't_XX blame_VVI me_PPIO1 for_IF its_APPGE implications_NN2 &quot;_" )_) ;_; they_PPHS2 do_VD0 not_XX solve_VVI or_CC even_RR identify_VVI the_AT problems_NN2 that_CST the_AT word_NN1 presents_NN2 ._. 
At_RR21 worst_RR22 ,_, they_PPHS2 merely_RR signal_VV0 a_AT1 reluctance_NN1 or_CC inability_NN1 to_TO grapple_VVI with_IW those_DD2 problems_NN2 ._. 
Philosophically_RR ,_, it_PPH1 could_VM be_VBI argued_VVN in_II any_DD case_NN1 that_CST most_DAT or_CC all_DB words_NN2 present_VV0 analogous_JJ difficulties_NN2 ,_, and_CC need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI put_VVN in_II scare_NN1 quotes_NN2 (_( &quot;_" the_AT 'topic'_NN1 of_IO this'essay'_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT 'issue'_NN1 of_IO the_AT 'author_NN1 's_VBZ '_GE 'intentions_NN2 '_GE &quot;_" ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) ._. 
So_RR if_CS you_PPY start_VV0 using_VVG scare_NN1 quotes_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI the_AT words_NN2 you_PPY do_VD0 not_XX put_VVI them_PPHO2 round_II which_DDQ become_VV0 the_AT problem._NNU 4.9_MC AGENCY_NN1 AND_CC PASSIVES_NN2 It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO arrange_VVI a_AT1 sentence_NN1 in_II different_JJ ways_NN2 ,_, to_TO emphasise_VVI different_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT action_NN1 it_PPH1 describes_VVZ ._. 
We_PPIS2 can_VM formulate_VVI an_AT1 ACTIVE_JJ sentence_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, where_CS the_AT subject_NN1 of_IO the_AT verb_NN1 (_( italicised_VVN below_RL )_) is_VBZ the_AT actor_NN1 :_: Jane_NP1 Austen_NP1 transforms_VVZ the_AT evolution_NN1 of_IO the_AT novel_NN1 ._. 
Or_CC we_PPIS2 can_VM describe_VVI the_AT same_DA action_NN1 using_VVG a_AT1 PASSIVE_JJ sentence_NN1 ,_, in_II which_DDQ the_AT subject_NN1 of_IO the_AT sentence_NN1 (_( italicised_VVN below_RL )_) is_VBZ acted_VVN upon_II (_( rather_II21 than_II22 acting_VVG )_) ._. 
The_AT evolution_NN1 of_IO the_AT novel_NN1 is_VBZ transformed_VVN by_II Jane_NP1 Austen_NP1 ._. 
Passives_NN2 are_VBR characteristic_JJ of_IO the_AT register_NN1 of_IO scientific_JJ papers_NN2 ,_, as_CSA can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN in_II the_AT scientific_JJ preference_NN1 for_IF passive_JJ &quot;_" Sodium_NN1 chloride_NN1 was_VBDZ added_VVN to_II the_AT solution_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 active_JJ &quot;_" I_PPIS1 added_VVD sodium_NN1 chloride_NN1 to_II the_AT solution_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
One_MC1 aspect_NN1 of_IO scientific_JJ style_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, is_VBZ that_CST in_II a_AT1 passive_JJ sentence_NN1 the_AT person_NN1 who_PNQS acts_VVZ is_VBZ often_RR not_XX mentioned_VVN at_RR21 all_RR22 ,_, to_TO symbolise_VVI the_AT scientific_JJ ideal_JJ that_CST the_AT procedures_NN2 should_VM be_VBI objective_JJ and_CC repeatable_JJ ,_, independent_JJ of_IO the_AT agent_NN1 who_PNQS carries_VVZ them_PPHO2 out_RP ._. 
The_AT missing_JJ actor_NN1 is_VBZ usually_RR assumed_VVN to_TO be_VBI the_AT writer_NN1 ._. 
In_II a_AT1 literary_JJ essay_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, you_PPY should_VM be_VBI cautious_JJ about_II leaving_VVG out_RP the_AT actor_NN1 in_II a_AT1 passive_JJ sentence_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT following_JJ passive_JJ sentence_NN1 the_AT writer_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX tell_VVI us_PPIO2 who_PNQS did_VDD the_AT associating_NN1 (_( newspapers_NN2 ?_? literary_JJ critics_NN2 ?_? the_AT general_JJ public_NN1 ?_? everyone_PN1 ?_? )_) :_: 
The_AT Yellow_JJ Book_NN1 and_CC the_AT Decadents_NN2 were_VBDR always_RR associated_VVN with_IW Oscar_NP1 Wilde_NP1 ._. 
Notice_VV0 ,_, too_RR ,_, that_CST your_APPGE choice_NN1 between_II active_JJ or_CC passive_NN1 has_VHZ the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO enabling_VVG you_PPY to_TO move_VVI the_AT &quot;_" actor_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC the_AT &quot;_" acted_VVN upon_II &quot;_" around_RP in_II the_AT sentence_NN1 ,_, most_RGT often_RR either_RR to_II the_AT beginning_NN1 or_CC to_II the_AT end_NN1 (_( as_CSA in_II the_AT &quot;_" Jane_NP1 Austen_NP1 &quot;_" example_NN1 above_RL )_) ._. 
These_DD2 two_MC positions_NN2 of_IO special_JJ prominence_NN1 have_VH0 different_JJ functions_NN2 ,_, and_CC contribute_VV0 to_II the_AT ordering_NN1 of_IO given_JJ and_CC new_JJ information_NN1 in_II your_APPGE writing_NN1 (_( we_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN above_II how_RRQ presupposition_NN1 also_RR contributes_VVZ to_II the_AT patterning_NN1 of_IO given_JJ and_CC new_JJ ,_, Chapter_NN1 3_MC ,_, p._NN1 65_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 sentence_NN1 generally_RR introduces_VVZ what_DDQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ &quot;_" about_RP &quot;_" ,_, often_RR an_AT1 item_NN1 of_IO given_JJ information_NN1 (_( i.e._REX something_PN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ already_RR been_VBN mentioned_VVN or_CC has_VHZ been_VBN directly_RR implied_VVN )_) ._. 
The_AT end_NN1 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, gives_VVZ focus_NN1 or_CC emphasis_NN1 to_II new_JJ information_NN1 ,_, and_CC is_VBZ generally_RR the_AT most_RGT appropriate_JJ position_NN1 for_IF the_AT &quot;_" point_NN1 &quot;_" of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR saying_VVG ._. 
As_CSA you_PPY write_VV0 ,_, the_AT process_NN1 of_IO ordering_VVG elements_NN2 in_II this_DD1 way_NN1 usually_RR happens_VVZ spontaneously_RR as_CSA it_PPH1 does_VDZ routinely_RR in_II conversation_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB if_CS a_AT1 passage_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 written_VVN seems_VVZ confused_JJ ,_, yet_RR you_PPY think_VV0 it_PPH1 says_VVZ basically_RR what_DDQ you_PPY want_VV0 it_PPH1 to_TO say_VVI ,_, it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI worth_II moving_VVG elements_NN2 by_II changing_VVG around_RP active_JJ and_CC passive_JJ constructions_NN2 (_( or_CC experimenting_VVG with_IW cleft_JJ and_CC pseudo-cleft_JJ constructions_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ are_VBR described_VVN above_RL ,_, Chapter_NN1 3_MC ,_, p._NN1 64_MC )_) ._. 
As_CSA you_PPY make_VV0 such_DA changes_NN2 ,_, you_PPY will_VM notice_VVI subtly_RR changing_JJ effects_NN2 created_VVN by_II bringing_VVG different_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 written_VVN into_II emphasised_VVD or_CC FOCUS_VV0 positions._NNU 4.10_MC USE_NN1 OF_IO RHETORICAL_JJ QUESTIONS_NN2 A_ZZ1 rhetorical_JJ question_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 question_NN1 you_PPY ask_VV0 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO create_VVI an_AT1 effect_NN1 ;_; you_PPY do_VD0 not_XX expect_VVI an_AT1 answer_NN1 and_CC instead_RR offer_VV0 one_PN1 yourself_PPX1 ._. 
Rhetorical_JJ questions_NN2 can_VM be_VBI a_AT1 good_JJ way_NN1 of_IO signalling_VVG the_AT DIALOGIC_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE writing_NN1 (_( i.e._REX that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ &quot;_" like_II a_AT1 dialogue_NN1 &quot;_" )_) :_: they_PPHS2 show_VV0 that_CST you_PPY are_VBR engaging_VVG with_IW your_APPGE reader_NN1 ,_, by_II anticipating_VVG her_PPHO1 or_CC his_APPGE responses_NN2 and_CC questions_NN2 as_CSA you_PPY go_VV0 along_RP ._. 
But_CCB rhetorical_JJ questions_NN2 can_VM be_VBI over-used_VVN ,_, especially_RR where_CS answers_NN2 to_II the_AT questions_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX follow_VVI immediately_RR ._. 
Consider_VV0 these_DD2 two_MC rhetorical_JJ questions_NN2 ,_, from_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II Othello_NP1 :_: Does_VDZ this_DD1 tell_VVI us_PPIO2 about_II Shakespeare_NP1 ?_? 
Is_VBZ he_PPHS1 guilty_JJ of_IO racial_JJ discrimination_NN1 ?_? 
If_CS the_AT essay_NN1 now_RT abandons_VVZ these_DD2 questions_NN2 and_CC introduces_VVZ another_DD1 topic_NN1 ,_, then_RT the_AT questions_NN2 have_VH0 not_XX engaged_VVN directly_RR with_IW the_AT reader_NN1 but_CCB have_VH0 suspended_VVN debate_NN1 ,_, after_II having_VHG introduced_VVN ,_, tantalisingly_RR ,_, an_AT1 area_NN1 for_IF speculation_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 case_NN1 ,_, note_VV0 that_CST the_AT essay_NN1 goes_VVZ on_RP ,_, The_AT aim_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX to_TO apportion_VVI blame_NN1 but_CCB to_TO uncover_VVI the_AT origins_NN2 of_IO racial_JJ stereotyping_NN1 and_CC how_RRQ they_PPHS2 have_VH0 permeated_VVN English_JJ Literature_NN1 ._. 
The_AT general_JJ issue_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" racial_JJ discrimination_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ picked_VVN up_RP here_RL ,_, in_II the_AT idea_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" racial_JJ stereotyping_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; but_CCB the_AT specific_JJ issue_NN1 of_IO Shakespeare_NP1 's_GE guilt_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX it_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN raised_VVN but_CCB not_XX dealt_VVN with_IW ._. 
Rhetorical_JJ questions_NN2 work_VV0 ,_, then_RT ,_, when_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR answered_VVN in_II what_DDQ follows_VVZ ,_, and_CC so_RG long_RR as_CSA they_PPHS2 are_VBR not_XX over-used._NNU 4.11_MC STYLISTIC_JJ INFECTION_NN1 In_II some_DD essays_NN2 ,_, the_AT style_NN1 of_IO the_AT language_NN1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT essay_NN1 is_VBZ written_VVN &quot;_" catches_VVZ &quot;_" characteristics_NN2 of_IO the_AT material_NN1 the_AT essay_NN1 is_VBZ about_RP ._. 
The_AT result_NN1 is_VBZ poetic_JJ texts_NN2 about_II poems_NN2 ;_; ironic_JJ essays_NN2 about_II ironic_JJ texts_NN2 ;_; satirical_JJ texts_NN2 about_II satire_NN1 ,_, etc_RA ._. 
Often_RR this_DD1 effect_NN1 on_II essay_NN1 style_NN1 comes_VVZ from_II enthusiasm_NN1 on_II41 the_II42 part_II43 of_II44 the_AT essay-writer_NN1 for_IF the_AT style_NN1 of_IO the_AT passage_NN1 being_VBG discussed_VVN ._. 
But_CCB one_MC1 consequence_NN1 of_IO such_DA stylistic_JJ infection_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST it_PPH1 reduces_VVZ the_AT difference_NN1 between_II the_AT text_NN1 being_VBG written_VVN about_RP and_CC the_AT essay_NN1 ,_, and_CC dissolves_VVZ the_AT boundary_NN1 (_( and_CC difference_NN1 of_IO purpose_NN1 )_) between_II the_AT two_MC ._. 
There_EX are_VBR things_NN2 about_II irony_NN1 which_DDQ it_PPH1 may_VM not_XX be_VBI possible_JJ to_TO say_VVI ironically_RR ;_; so_RR an_AT1 ironic_JJ essay_NN1 on_II irony_NN1 will_VM fail_VVI to_TO address_VVI such_DA issues_NN2 ._. 
In_II examinations_NN2 this_DD1 can_VM be_VBI a_AT1 particular_JJ problem_NN1 ,_, in_CS21 that_CS22 it_PPH1 is_VBZ likely_JJ such_DA writing_NN1 will_VM not_XX answer_VVI the_AT prescribed_JJ question_NN1 very_RG closely_RR ._. 
Note_VV0 ,_, too_RR ,_, that_CST if_CS you_PPY write_VV0 ironically_RR you_PPY may_VM seem_VVI to_TO be_VBI satirising_VVG the_AT question_NN1 ,_, or_CC the_AT process_NN1 of_IO analytical_JJ writing_NN1 about_II literature_NN1 more_RRR generally._NNU 4.12_MC YOURSELF_PPX1 AND_CC YOUR_APPGE READER_NN1 When_CS referring_VVG to_II yourself_PPX1 as_II the_AT writer_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO use_VVI a_AT1 range_NN1 of_IO forms_NN2 :_: &quot;_" I_PPIS1 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" we_PPIS2 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" one_PN1 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" the_AT present_JJ author_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, etc_RA ._. 
Traditionally_RR ,_, there_EX are_VBR restrictions_NN2 on_II using_VVG &quot;_" I_MC1 &quot;_" :_: some_DD teachers_NN2 forbid_VV0 it_PPH1 ,_, as_CSA an_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO inelegant_JJ intrusion_NN1 by_II the_AT author_NN1 (_( though_CS nowadays_RT it_PPH1 is_VBZ generally_RR thought_VVN permissible_JJ to_TO use_VVI &quot;_" I_PPIS1 &quot;_" occasionally_RR ,_, to_TO emphasise_VVI a_AT1 point_NN1 which_DDQ you_PPY wish_VV0 to_TO show_VVI is_VBZ personal_JJ rather_II21 than_II22 general_NN1 )_) ._. 
The_AT guiding_JJ principle_NN1 must_VM be_VBI that_CST the_AT overall_JJ value_NN1 or_CC interest_NN1 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 lies_VVZ in_II how_RRQ its_APPGE combination_NN1 of_IO observation_NN1 and_CC argument_NN1 leads_VVZ towards_II more_RGR general_JJ statements_NN2 ,_, and_CC so_RR away_II21 from_II22 the_AT particularity_NN1 of_IO autobiography_NN1 and_CC personal_JJ impression_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 respect_NN1 ,_, too_RG much_DA1 use_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" I_ZZ1 &quot;_" (_( especially_RR ,_, &quot;_" I_PPIS1 think_VV0 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" I_PPIS1 noticed_VVD &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" I_PPIS1 much_RR prefer_VV0 &quot;_" ,_, etc._RA )_) prevents_VVZ the_AT essay_NN1 from_II attaining_VVG that_DD1 level_NN1 of_IO generalisation_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO get_VVI round_II the_AT need_NN1 to_TO refer_VVI to_II yourself_PPX1 by_II using_VVG the_AT following_JJ devices_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ can_VM be_VBI varied_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO avoid_VVI any_DD over-formulaic_JJ effect_NN1 :_: Adverbs_NN2 and_CC adverbial_JJ expressions_NN2 Instead_CS21 of_CS22 &quot;_" I_PPIS1 think_VV0 it_PPH1 is_VBZ likely_JJ that_CST ..._... &quot;_" use_VV0 &quot;_" Arguably_RR ..._... &quot;_" (_( but_CCB bear_VV0 in_II mind_NN1 what_DDQ we_PPIS2 have_VH0 said_VVN about_II &quot;_" arguably_RR &quot;_" above_RL ,_, Chapter_NN1 3_MC ,_, p._NN1 68_MC )_) ._. 
Passives_NN2 Rewrite_VV0 &quot;_" I_PPIS1 argue_VV0 below_II that_DD1 ..._... &quot;_" as_CSA &quot;_" it_PPH1 is_VBZ argued_VVN below_II that_DD1 ..._... 
&quot;_" Personification_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 itself_PPX1 as_II an_AT1 agent_NN1 Rewrite_VV0 &quot;_" in_II this_DD1 essay_NN1 I_PPIS1 explain_VV0 how_RRQ ..._... &quot;_" as_CSA &quot;_" this_DD1 essay_NN1 explains_VVZ how_RRQ ..._... 
&quot;_" &quot;_" One_MC1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" we_PPIS2 &quot;_" as_II ways_NN2 of_IO referring_VVG to_II yourself_PPX1 should_VM be_VBI avoided_VVN because_CS they_PPHS2 now_RT seem_VV0 ARCHAIC_NP1 (_( old-fashioned_JJ )_) ,_, and_CC in_II most_DAT cases_NN2 pompous_JJ in_II an_AT1 unpublished_JJ essay_NN1 ,_, especially_RR if_CS embedded_VVN in_II a_AT1 more_RGR colloquial_JJ register_NN1 ._. 
The_AT authorial_JJ &quot;_" we_PPIS2 &quot;_" (_( &quot;_" we_PPIS2 will_VM argue_VVI below_RL &quot;_" )_) should_VM similarly_RR be_VBI avoided_VVN ._. 
This_DD1 recommendation_NN1 to_TO avoid_VVI &quot;_" one_PN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" we_PPIS2 &quot;_" has_VHZ a_AT1 justification_NN1 besides_II traditional_JJ reservations_NN2 about_II personal_JJ intrusion_NN1 ._. 
Both_RR &quot;_" one_MC1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" we_PPIS2 &quot;_" produce_VV0 the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO generalised_JJ response_NN1 :_: &quot;_" one_PN1 &quot;_" combines_VVZ the_AT personal_JJ dimension_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" I_ZZ1 &quot;_" with_IW the_AT general_JJ characteristic_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" anyone_PN1 &quot;_" (_( i.e._REX the_AT writer_NN1 serves_VVZ as_II a_AT1 norm_NN1 or_CC representative_NN1 of_IO everyone_PN1 else_RR )_) ;_; and_CC &quot;_" we_PPIS2 &quot;_" (_( at_RR21 least_RR22 in_II its_APPGE inclusive_JJ use_NN1 as_CSA readers_NN2 ,_, &quot;_" we_PPIS2 feel_VV0 in_II this_DD1 passage_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 as_RG authorial_JJ &quot;_" we_PPIS2 ,_, the_AT author_NN1 &quot;_" )_) suggests_VVZ generalised_JJ reader-reaction_NN1 ._. 
Clearly_RR it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO use_VVI &quot;_" a_AT1 reader_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, or_CC &quot;_" the_AT reader_NN1 &quot;_" to_TO replace_VVI &quot;_" we_PPIS2 &quot;_" in_II this_DD1 sense_NN1 ,_, with_IW an_AT1 analogous_JJ implication_NN1 of_IO common_JJ ,_, general_JJ response_NN1 ._. 
Alternatively_RR ,_, however_RR ,_, you_PPY may_VM want_VVI to_TO emphasise_VVI the_AT point_NN1 that_CST actual_JJ readers_NN2 are_VBR unlikely_JJ to_TO respond_VVI all_DB in_II the_AT same_DA way_NN1 ,_, especially_RR readers_NN2 differing_VVG in_II gender_NN1 ,_, class_NN1 ,_, age_NN1 ,_, ethnicity_NN1 or_CC some_DD other_JJ aspect_NN1 of_IO social_JJ identity_NN1 ._. 
So_RR you_PPY may_VM want_VVI to_TO modify_VVI such_DA formulations_NN2 along_II the_AT lines_NN2 ,_, &quot;_" a_AT1 reader_NN1 is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO feel_VVI at_II this_DD1 point_NN1 &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" many_DA2 readers_NN2 may_VM respond_VVI by_II ..._... &quot;_" ,_, or_CC possibly_RR better_RRR by_II tackling_VVG the_AT issue_NN1 of_IO heterogeneous_JJ reader-responses_NN2 more_RGR directly_RR ._. 
The_AT precise_JJ degree_NN1 to_II which_DDQ you_PPY decide_VV0 to_TO use_VVI techniques_NN2 for_IF avoiding_VVG &quot;_" I_MC1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" we_PPIS2 &quot;_" will_VM depend_VVI on_II the_AT overall_NN1 register_VV0 you_PPY are_VBR trying_VVG to_TO produce_VVI ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY should_VM certainly_RR avoid_VVI obvious_JJ personal_JJ intrusions_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 the_AT two_MC following_RA :_: The_AT confession_NN1 &quot;_" Sorry_JJ ,_, I_PPIS1 had_VHD no_AT time_NNT1 to_TO complete_VVI this_DD1 essay_NN1 ,_, so_CS I_PPIS1 have_VH0 made_VVN some_DD basic_JJ points_NN2 that_CST I_PPIS1 would_VM have_VHI brought_VVN out_RP and_CC discussed_VVN ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT embedded_JJ &quot;_" letter_NN1 &quot;_" (_( a_AT1 direct_JJ address_NN1 to_II the_AT reader_NN1 ,_, often_RR with_IW apology_NN1 or_CC denunciation_NN1 of_IO the_AT course_NN1 )_) :_: &quot;_" Is_VBZ n't_XX there_EX a_AT1 problem_NN1 with_IW the_AT way_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 formulated_VVN this_DD1 question_NN1 ?_? 
I_PPIS1 should_VM have_VHI thought_VVN that_CST ..._... 
&quot;_" So_RG much_DA1 ,_, then_RT ,_, for_IF &quot;_" I_ZZ1 &quot;_" ._. 
But_CCB what_DDQ about_II &quot;_" you_PPY &quot;_" ?_? 
In_II this_DD1 book_NN1 you_PPY will_VM probably_RR have_VHI noticed_VVN that_CST we_PPIS2 use_VV0 &quot;_" you_PPY &quot;_" quite_RG often_RR ._. 
Yet_RR second-person_JJ pronouns_NN2 are_VBR not_XX generally_RR accepted_VVN in_II academic_JJ writing_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 characteristic_NN1 of_IO the_AT idiom_NN1 linked_VVN to_II the_AT idea_NN1 of_IO criticism_NN1 having_VHG less_RRR a_AT1 given_JJ ,_, particular_JJ reader_NN1 than_CSN of_IO an_AT1 unspecified_JJ general_JJ readership_NN1 ._. 
While_CS this_DD1 view_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 readership_NN1 is_VBZ often_RR deeply_RR at_II odds_NN2 with_IW the_AT actual_JJ circumstances_NN2 of_IO essay-writing_NN1 in_II literature_NN1 courses_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 remains_VVZ a_AT1 conventional_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO academic_JJ style_NN1 ;_; and_CC your_APPGE writing_NN1 will_VM produce_VVI very_RG marked_JJ effects_NN2 if_CS you_PPY deviate_VV0 from_II the_AT conventions_NN2 it_PPH1 has_VHZ produced_VVN ._. 
Ways_NN2 round_II using_VVG &quot;_" you_PPY &quot;_" overlap_VV0 with_IW the_AT ways_NN2 of_IO avoiding_VVG &quot;_" I_MC1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" we_PPIS2 &quot;_" outlined_VVN above_RL ._. 
Replace_VV0 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, &quot;_" in_II this_DD1 essay_NN1 I_PPIS1 will_VM tell_VVI you_PPY &quot;_" with_IW &quot;_" this_DD1 essay_NN1 explains_VVZ how_RRQ ..._... &quot;_" ,_, and_CC &quot;_" you_PPY might_VM see_VVI this_DD1 phrase_NN1 as_CSA meaning_NN1 ..._... &quot;_" with_IW something_PN1 like_II &quot;_" this_DD1 phrase_NN1 may_VM be_VBI interpreted_VVN as_CSA meaning_NN1 ..._... &quot;_" 4.13_MC UNBIASED_JJ AND_CC GENDER-FREE_JJ LANGUAGE_NN1 If_CS this_DD1 book_NN1 had_VHD been_VBN written_VVN twenty_MC years_NNT2 ago_RA it_PPH1 would_VM have_VHI been_VBN unlikely_JJ to_TO contain_VVI any_DD discussion_NN1 of_IO bias_NN1 in_II the_AT language_NN1 of_IO academic_JJ work_NN1 ._. 
Because_II21 of_II22 changes_NN2 in_II society_NN1 in_RR21 general_RR22 ,_, and_CC in_II the_AT student_NN1 and_CC academic_JJ population_NN1 in_RR21 particular_RR22 ,_, bias_NN1 has_VHZ become_VVN a_AT1 major_JJ issue_NN1 in_II academic_JJ writing_NN1 (_( reflected_JJ for_REX21 example_REX22 in_II current_JJ arguments_NN2 over_II &quot;_" political_JJ correctness_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
&quot;_" Biased_JJ language_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ language_NN1 which_DDQ favours_VVZ one_MC1 group_NN1 of_IO the_AT population_NN1 at_II the_AT expense_NN1 of_IO another_DD1 ;_; the_AT group_NN1 not_XX favoured_VVN is_VBZ then_RT said_VVN to_TO be_VBI marginalised_VVN or_CC derogated_VVD ._. 
There_EX are_VBR two_MC basic_JJ mechanisms_NN2 by_II which_DDQ bias_NN1 works_VVZ :_: choice_NN1 of_IO pronouns_NN2 (_( specifically_RR in_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO gender_NN1 bias_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC choice_NN1 of_IO names_NN2 for_IF people_NN ._. 
Consider_VV0 this_DD1 sentence_NN1 :_: The_AT reader_NN1 will_VM find_VVI his_APPGE expectations_NN2 satisfied_VVD ._. 
The_AT writer_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 sentence_NN1 does_VDZ n't_XX know_VVI whether_CSW the_AT reader_NN1 is_VBZ male_JJ or_CC female_NN1 ,_, but_CCB has_VHZ chosen_VVN to_TO use_VVI &quot;_" his_PPGE &quot;_" as_CSA a_AT1 GENERIC_JJ to_TO mean_VVI &quot;_" male_JJ or_CC female_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, overriding_VVG the_AT normal_JJ use_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" his_PPGE &quot;_" as_CSA a_AT1 gender-specific_JJ pronoun_NN1 meaning_NN1 &quot;_" male_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
While_CS this_DD1 used_VMK to_TO be_VBI common_JJ practice_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ now_RT widely_RR considered_VVN sexist_JJ :_: such_DA usage_NN1 represents_VVZ the_AT masculine_JJ as_CSA the_AT norm_NN1 ,_, and_CC so_RR marginalises_VVZ women_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO the_AT link_NN1 between_II &quot;_" reader_NN1 ..._... he_PPHS1 &quot;_" ,_, the_AT &quot;_" male_NN1 as_CSA norm_NN1 &quot;_" terminology_NN1 creates_VVZ the_AT impression_NN1 that_CST educated_JJ discussion_NN1 of_IO literature_NN1 takes_VVZ place_NN1 only_RR among_II men_NN2 (_( even_CS21 though_CS22 literary_JJ study_NN1 was_VBDZ established_VVN in_II Britain_NP1 in_II the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 as_II a_AT1 subject_NN1 largely_RR for_IF women_NN2 ,_, and_CC now_RT has_VHZ a_AT1 significant_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO women_NN2 involved_JJ in_II it_PPH1 )_) ._. 
Such_DA usage_NN1 also_RR reinforces_VVZ the_AT common_JJ but_CCB mistaken_JJ idea_NN1 that_CST authors_NN2 are_VBR normally_RR men_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 women_NN2 (_( an_AT1 idea_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ probably_RR only_RR true_JJ of_IO the_AT canon_NN1 of_IO writers_NN2 selected_VVN for_IF study_NN1 generally_RR by_II male_JJ critics_NN2 not_XX of_IO writing_VVG as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 )_) ._. 
There_EX are_VBR various_JJ alternatives_NN2 to_II traditional_JJ ,_, &quot;_" generic_JJ &quot;_" usage_NN1 ._. 
Both_RR male_JJ and_CC female_JJ pronouns_NN2 can_VM be_VBI used_VVN :_: The_AT reader_NN1 will_VM find_VVI his_APPGE or_CC her_APPGE expectations_NN2 satisfied_VVD ._. 
But_CCB there_EX is_VBZ no_AT particular_JJ reason_NN1 to_TO put_VVI &quot;_" his_APPGE &quot;_" first_MD ,_, so_CS you_PPY could_VM also_RR write_VVI :_: The_AT reader_NN1 will_VM find_VVI her_PPHO1 or_CC his_APPGE expectations_NN2 satisfied_VVD ._. 
Or_CC you_PPY can_VM rewrite_VVI the_AT sentence_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 the_AT plural_JJ pronoun_NN1 is_VBZ used_VVN :_: Readers_NN2 will_VM find_VVI their_APPGE expectations_NN2 satisfied_VVD ._. 
Or_CC you_PPY can_VM use_VVI &quot;_" s/he_PPHS1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" her/his_APPGE &quot;_" to_TO replace_VVI &quot;_" he_PPHS1 and/or_CC she_PPHS1 &quot;_" ._. 
Or_CC you_PPY can_VM use_VVI &quot;_" she_PPHS1 &quot;_" as_II a_AT1 generic_JJ ,_, directly_RR challenging_VVG the_AT older_JJR use_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" he_PPHS1 &quot;_" :_: The_AT reader_NN1 will_VM find_VVI her_APPGE expectations_NN2 satisfied_VVD ._. 
Finally_RR ,_, some_DD writers_NN2 alternate_VV0 &quot;_" he_PPHS1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" she_PPHS1 &quot;_" (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, in_II Open_JJ University_NN1 coursebooks_NN2 ,_, alternative_JJ paragraphs_NN2 have_VH0 &quot;_" he_PPHS1 &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" she_PPHS1 &quot;_" ;_; and_CC in_II Sperber_NP1 and_CC Wilson_NP1 's_GE linguistic_JJ work_NN1 ,_, Relevance_NN1 Theory_NN1 ,_, the_AT speaker_NN1 is_VBZ always_RR referred_VVN to_II as_CSA &quot;_" she_PPHS1 &quot;_" &quot;_" s_ZZ1 &quot;_" for_IF &quot;_" speaker_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC the_AT hearer_NN1 as_CSA &quot;_" he_PPHS1 &quot;_" &quot;_" h_ZZ1 &quot;_" for_IF &quot;_" hearer_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
Any_DD of_IO these_DD2 methods_NN2 is_VBZ satisfactory_JJ ;_; the_AT important_JJ thing_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO be_VBI consistent_JJ ._. 
The_AT second_MD major_JJ way_NN1 of_IO expressing_VVG bias_NN1 is_VBZ in_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO names_NN2 for_IF groups_NN2 of_IO people_NN ._. 
The_AT false_JJ generic_JJ &quot;_" Man/mankind_NN1 &quot;_" should_VM be_VBI replaced_VVN by_II &quot;_" people_NN &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" humankind_VV0 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" etc._RA ;_; and_CC further_JJR bias_NN1 against_II women_NN2 is_VBZ expressed_VVN by_II referring_VVG to_II adult_NN1 women_NN2 as_CSA &quot;_" girls_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
Similarly_RR ,_, you_PPY should_VM avoid_VVI terms_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" poetess_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" actress_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" lady_NN1 novelist_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, etc._RA ,_, which_DDQ are_VBR all_DB asymmetrical_JJ with_IW the_AT male-counterpart_JJ term_NN1 (_( &quot;_" poet_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" actor_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) ._. 
Lists_NN2 of_IO names_NN2 of_IO authors_NN2 should_VM not_XX be_VBI differentiated_VVN according_II21 to_II22 gender_NN1 ,_, by_II using_VVG first_MD names_NN2 for_IF female_JJ writers_NN2 but_CCB only_JJ family_NN1 names_NN2 for_IF male_JJ writers_NN2 (_( as_CSA in_II &quot;_" Shakespeare_NP1 ,_, Milton_NP1 ,_, Jane_NP1 Austen_NP1 ,_, Hardy_NP1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
Be_VB0 consistent_JJ in_II whatever_DDQV listing_NN1 convention_NN1 you_PPY choose_VV0 ._. 
While_CS bias_NN1 against_II women_NN2 is_VBZ perhaps_RR the_AT most_RGT thorough_JJ form_NN1 of_IO bias_NN1 in_II language_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ to_TO recognise_VVI and_CC try_VVI to_TO remove_VVI bias_NN1 against_II other_JJ marginalised_JJ groups_NN2 ._. 
In_RR21 general_RR22 ,_, groups_NN2 of_IO people_NN must_VM be_VBI allowed_VVN to_TO choose_VVI their_APPGE own_DA names_NN2 :_: no_AT group_NN1 chooses_VVZ to_TO call_VVI itself_PPX1 &quot;_" Red_JJ Indians_NN2 &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" Negroes_NN2 &quot;_" ,_, so_CS you_PPY should_VM avoid_VVI these_DD2 terms_NN2 ;_; &quot;_" coloured_JJ &quot;_" is_VBZ generally_RR considered_VVN unacceptable_JJ by_II people_NN to_II whom_PNQO the_AT term_NN1 is_VBZ applied_VVN ;_; etc_RA ._. 
Naming_VVG groups_NN2 of_IO people_NN is_VBZ an_AT1 extremely_RR complex_JJ issue_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ dependent_JJ on_II the_AT political_JJ orientations_NN2 of_IO the_AT people_NN involved_VVN and_CC on_II rapid_JJ changes_NN2 in_II nuance_NN1 and_CC connotation_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY can_VM not_XX simply_RR opt_VVI out_II21 of_II22 the_AT issue_NN1 altogether_RR ,_, no_PNQS31 matter_PNQS32 who_PNQS33 you_PPY are_VBR :_: whatever_DDQV choice_NN1 you_PPY make_VV0 in_II this_DD1 area_NN1 will_VM have_VHI a_AT1 meaning_NN1 and_CC give_VV0 a_AT1 signal_NN1 ._. 
Making_VVG yourself_PPX1 aware_JJ of_IO bias_NN1 and_CC adopting_VVG alternative_JJ usages_NN2 should_VM prevent_VVI the_AT tacit_JJ presumption_NN1 by_II your_APPGE reader_NN1 of_IO the_AT white_JJ male_NN1 as_II a_AT1 norm_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 also_RR signals_VVZ in_II passing_VVG your_APPGE awareness_NN1 of_IO issues_NN2 of_IO gender_NN1 ,_, race_NN1 and_CC other_JJ questions_NN2 of_IO social_JJ distinction_NN1 which_DDQ arise_VV0 in_II literary_JJ study_NN1 ;_; this_DD1 awareness_NN1 should_VM then_RT extend_VVI into_II your_APPGE choice_NN1 of_IO particular_JJ texts_NN2 and_CC authors_NN2 to_TO study_VVI ,_, and_CC into_II the_AT comments_NN2 and_CC analysis_NN1 of_IO images_NN2 of_IO gender_NN1 ,_, sexuality_NN1 and_CC difference_NN1 you_PPY develop._NNU 4.14_MC SUMMARY_NN1 ,_, SUGGESTIONS_NN2 AND_CC EXERCISES_VVZ Summary_NN1 In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 have_VH0 suggested_VVN that_CST literary_JJ essays_NN2 have_VH0 a_AT1 characteristic_JJ style_NN1 or_CC voice_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ different_JJ from_II the_AT way_NN1 you_PPY talk_VV0 or_CC might_VM narrate_VVI a_AT1 story_NN1 or_CC write_VV0 a_AT1 letter_NN1 ._. 
In_II describing_VVG the_AT various_JJ features_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 academic_JJ essay-writing_JJ register_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 have_VH0 stressed_VVN that_CST the_AT style_NN1 you_PPY adopt_VV0 not_XX only_RR places_VVZ your_APPGE essay_NN1 in_II an_AT1 established_JJ ,_, conventional_JJ idiom_NN1 ,_, but_CCB also_RR creates_VVZ a_AT1 clear_JJ impression_NN1 of_IO you_PPY and_CC your_APPGE attitudes_NN2 towards_II your_APPGE subject_NN1 matter_NN1 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 defining_VVG a_AT1 specific_JJ relationship_NN1 with_IW your_APPGE reader_NN1 ._. 
Adopting_VVG an_AT1 inappropriate_JJ style_NN1 can_VM accordingly_RR damage_VVI your_APPGE credibility_NN1 as_II a_AT1 writer_NN1 ,_, and_CC undermine_VV0 the_AT force_NN1 of_IO the_AT points_NN2 your_APPGE essay_NN1 makes_VVZ ._. 
Conversely_RR ,_, developing_VVG your_APPGE skill_NN1 with_IW the_AT nuances_NN2 of_IO essay-writing_JJ style_NN1 can_VM enhance_VVI the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO the_AT points_NN2 you_PPY make_VV0 ,_, and_CC enable_VV0 you_PPY to_TO steer_VVI comfortably_RR through_II complexities_NN2 of_IO the_AT arguments_NN2 you_PPY present_VV0 ._. 
Specific_JJ suggestions_NN2 :_: *_FU Develop_VV0 a_AT1 register_NN1 for_IF your_APPGE academic_JJ writing_NN1 which_DDQ avoids_VVZ characteristics_NN2 of_IO speech_NN1 but_CCB which_DDQ you_PPY can_VM still_RR comfortably_RR read_VVI aloud_RR (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 734_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Use_NN1 a_AT1 mixture_NN1 of_IO short_JJ sentences_NN2 and_CC longer_RRR ,_, more_RGR complex_JJ sentences_NN2 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 767_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Use_NN1 the_AT same_DA register_NN1 throughout_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 778_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Avoid_VV0 being_VBG condescending_JJ to_II your_APPGE reader_NN1 or_CC about_II the_AT text_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR discussing_VVG (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 789_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Use_NN1 technical_JJ terms_NN2 only_RR when_CS you_PPY are_VBR going_VVGK to_TO say_VVI something_PN1 with_IW them_PPHO2 which_DDQ you_PPY could_VM n't_XX say_VVI without_IW them_PPHO2 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 812_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Explain_VV0 technical_JJ terms_NN2 ,_, particularly_RR if_CS your_APPGE writing_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX rooted_VVN in_II a_AT1 specific_JJ theoretical_JJ or_CC critical_JJ tradition_NN1 ;_; if_CS the_AT terms_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR using_VVG seem_VV0 difficult_JJ to_TO explain_VVI ,_, avoid_VV0 them_PPHO2 if_CS you_PPY can_VM ,_, or_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 explain_VV0 the_AT difficulty_NN1 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 81_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Ask_VV0 rhetorical_JJ questions_NN2 only_RR when_CS you_PPY are_VBR going_VVGK to_TO give_VVI an_AT1 answer_NN1 to_II them_PPHO2 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 84_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Do_VD0 n't_XX copy_VVI the_AT style_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 literary_JJ text_NN1 you_PPY are_VBR writing_VVG about_II (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 85_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Do_VD0 n't_XX refer_VVI to_II yourself_PPX1 as_CSA &quot;_" one_MC1 &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" we_PPIS2 &quot;_" ;_; use_VV0 &quot;_" I_PPIS1 &quot;_" only_RR when_CS you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO introduce_VVI a_AT1 special_JJ ,_, personal_JJ note_NN1 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 86_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Do_VD0 n't_XX address_VVI the_AT reader_NN1 directly_RR ;_; avoid_VV0 &quot;_" you_PPY &quot;_" (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 867_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Do_VD0 n't_XX use_VVI biased_JJ language_NN1 ;_; in_RR21 particular_RR22 ,_, do_VD0 n't_XX use_VVI &quot;_" he_PPHS1 &quot;_" to_TO mean_VVI both_RR men_NN2 and_CC women_NN2 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 878_MC )_) ._. 
Exercises_NN2 (_( 1_MC1 )_) This_DD1 chapter_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX written_VVN in_II a_AT1 standard_JJ academic_JJ register_NN1 (_( such_II21 as_II22 you_PPY might_VM use_VVI in_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 )_) ._. 
Take_VV0 the_AT paragraph_NN1 on_II p._NNU 73_MC beginning_NN1 &quot;_" On_II the_AT whole_NN1 ..._... &quot;_" ,_, underline_VV0 all_DB parts_NN2 of_IO it_PPH1 which_DDQ might_VM be_VBI considered_VVN not_XX to_TO belong_VVI to_II standard_JJ academic_JJ register_NN1 and_CC explain_VVI why_RRQ ,_, and_CC rewrite_VV0 the_AT paragraph_NN1 in_II academic_JJ register_NN1 ._. 
When_CS you_PPY do_VD0 this_DD1 ,_, bear_VV0 in_II mind_NN1 the_AT need_NN1 to_TO avoid_VVI bias_NN1 in_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO pronouns_NN2 (_( section_NN1 4.13_MC )_) ._. 
(_( 2_MC )_) Rewrite_VV0 the_AT extract_NN1 on_II p._NNU 77_MC beginning_NN1 &quot;_" Since_CS Etherege_NP1 ..._... &quot;_" ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 it_PPH1 consists_VVZ of_IO several_DA2 short_JJ sentences._NNU (_( 3_MC )_) Rewrite_VV0 the_AT extract_NN1 on_II p._NNU 78_MC beginning_VVG &quot;_" Moore_NP1 states_VVZ ..._... &quot;_" ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 its_APPGE register_NN1 is_VBZ consistent_JJ (_( and_CC neither_RR too_RG high_JJ nor_CC too_RG low_JJ for_IF academic_JJ writing_NN1 )_) ._. 
(_( 4_MC )_) The_AT following_JJ passage_NN1 contains_VVZ some_DD inconsistencies_NN2 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT register_NN1 it_PPH1 adopts_VVZ ._. 
Using_VVG our_APPGE discussion_NN1 in_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 ,_, edit_VV0 it_PPH1 so_CS21 that_CS22 it_PPH1 conforms_VVZ more_RRR to_II what_DDQ you_PPY now_RT understand_VV0 to_TO be_VBI conventions_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 appropriate_JJ literary-critical_JJ style_NN1 ._. 
(_( Try_VV0 to_TO alter_VVI the_AT sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT passage_NN1 as_RG little_DA1 as_CSA possible_JJ in_II your_APPGE revisions_NN2 ._. )_) 
There_EX is_VBZ dichotomy_NN1 in_II the_AT defiance_NN1 of_IO moral_JJ law_NN1 in_II Marlowe_NP1 's_GE Edward_NP1 II_MC ._. 
For_IF at_II the_AT play_NN1 's_GE inception_NN1 Edward_NP1 is_VBZ berated_VVN by_II Mortimer_NP1 and_CC the_AT other_JJ earls_NN2 for_IF his_APPGE base_NN1 acts_VVZ with_IW Gaveston_NP1 ;_; and_CC in_II31 defiance_II32 of_II33 well-defined_JJ laws_NN2 of_IO divine_JJ right_NN1 and_CC birthright_NN1 Mortimer_NP1 attempts_VVZ to_TO depose_VVI a_AT1 crowned_JJ king_NN1 ._. 
Both_DB2 acts_NN2 are_VBR morally_RR wrong_JJ Edward_NP1 should_VM not_XX have_VHI abused_VVN his_APPGE divine_JJ right_NN1 and_CC curried_JJ favour_NN1 by_II dishing_VVG out_RP peerages_NN2 ._. 
Conversely_RR Mortimer_NP1 should_VM not_XX have_VHI invoked_VVN the_AT earls_NN2 to_TO revolt_VVI against_II the_AT king_NN1 ._. 
So_RR at_II the_AT nub_NN1 of_IO Marlowe_NP1 's_GE play_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT morality_NN1 of_IO deposition_NN1 and_CC the_AT morality_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 married_JJ king_NN1 shunning_VVG his_APPGE wife_NN1 in_II31 favour_II32 of_II33 a_AT1 homosexual_JJ lover_NN1 ._. 
Writing_VVG your_APPGE essay_NN1 or_CC dissertation_NN1 This_DD1 chapter_NN1 looks_VVZ at_II how_RRQ you_PPY compose_VV0 the_AT sentences_NN2 and_CC paragraphs_NN2 which_DDQ make_VV0 up_RP your_APPGE essay_NN1 or_CC dissertation_NN1 ._. 
In_RR21 particular_RR22 ,_, we_PPIS2 consider_VV0 two_MC especially_RR important_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE work_NN1 :_: the_AT beginning_NN1 and_CC the_AT end_NN1 ._. 
The_AT beginning_NN1 has_VHZ to_TO create_VVI interest_NN1 and_CC tell_VVI the_AT reader_NN1 what_DDQ to_TO expect_VVI ,_, while_CS the_AT end_NN1 will_VM form_VVI a_AT1 disproportionate_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT reader_NN1 's_GE final_JJ impression_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 (_( in_II fact_NN1 ,_, many_DA2 readers_NN2 will_VM read_VVI the_AT end_NN1 first_MD ,_, to_TO find_VVI out_RP what_DDQ conclusions_NN2 you_PPY draw_VV0 )_) ._. 
Later_JJR sections_NN2 of_IO the_AT chapter_NN1 explain_VV0 how_RRQ you_PPY divide_VV0 your_APPGE essay_NN1 into_II paragraphs_NN2 and_CC signal_VV0 the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
We_PPIS2 end_VV0 by_II looking_VVG at_II how_RRQ you_PPY embed_VV0 other_JJ people_NN 's_GE words_NN2 into_II your_APPGE own_DA writing_NN1 ,_, in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO paraphrase_NN1 and_CC quotation._NNU 5.1_MC THE_AT FIRST_MD PARAGRAPH_NN1 The_AT first_MD paragraph_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 tells_VVZ your_APPGE reader_NN1 what_DDQ your_APPGE essay_NN1 will_VM be_VBI about_II :_: what_DDQ the_AT main_JJ focus_NN1 is_VBZ and_CC what_DDQ question(s)_VVZ you_PPY are_VBR going_VVGK to_TO answer_VVI ._. 
But_CCB your_APPGE first_MD paragraph_NN1 is_VBZ also_RR your_APPGE opportunity_NN1 to_TO start_VVI actively_RR working_VVG on_II those_DD2 questions_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ true_JJ even_CS21 if_CS22 the_AT question_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN prescribed_VVN by_II someone_PN1 else_RR (_( perhaps_RR in_II an_AT1 examination_NN1 )_) ;_; in_II such_DA cases_NN2 ,_, you_PPY reformulate_VV0 the_AT question_NN1 in_II your_APPGE first_MD paragraph_NN1 to_TO demonstrate_VVI that_CST you_PPY have_VH0 understood_VVN it_PPH1 and_CC can_VM develop_VVI arguments_NN2 from_II it_PPH1 ._. 
Here_RL is_VBZ an_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 set_NN1 question_NN1 :_: Explain_VV0 fully_RR the_AT significance_NN1 of_IO the_AT title_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" The_AT Captain_NN1 's_GE Doll_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
And_CC this_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 essay_NN1 which_DDQ answers_VVZ it_PPH1 :_: The_AT significance_NN1 of_IO the_AT title_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" The_AT Captain_NN1 's_GE Doll_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ its_APPGE use_NN1 as_II a_AT1 central_JJ symbol_NN1 or_CC motif_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT organizing_JJ principle_NN1 for_IF the_AT whole_JJ story_NN1 ._. 
Though_CS the_AT doll_NN1 motif_NN1 can_VM be_VBI applied_VVN to_II several_DA2 different_JJ characters_NN2 ,_, its_APPGE central_JJ meaning_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 representation_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 which_DDQ Lawrence_NP1 dislikes_VVZ in_II relationships_NN2 between_II men_NN2 and_CC women_NN2 ._. 
The_AT essay_NN1 begins_VVZ by_II stating_VVG its_APPGE main_JJ point_NN1 :_: that_CST the_AT title_NN1 focuses_VVZ attention_NN1 on_II a_AT1 multifunctional_JJ symbol_NN1 within_II the_AT story_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB to_TO do_VDI this_DD1 ,_, the_AT writer_NN1 simply_RR repeats_VVZ the_AT wording_NN1 of_IO the_AT question_NN1 ._. 
Instead_RR she_PPHS1 or_CC he_PPHS1 could_VM have_VHI used_VVN material_NN1 from_II the_AT question_NN1 to_TO begin_VVI the_AT essay_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 generalisation_NN1 (_( see_VV0 above_RL ,_, Chapter_NN1 3_MC ,_, p._NN1 66_MC )_) ,_, like_II this_DD1 :_: Titles_NN2 often_RR serve_VV0 the_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO focusing_VVG attention_NN1 on_II a_AT1 central_JJ symbol_NN1 ;_; and_CC this_DD1 is_VBZ certainly_RR true_JJ of_IO &quot;_" The_AT Captain_NN1 's_GE Doll_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
Though_CS the_AT doll_NN1 motif_NN1 ..._... 
Just_RR repeating_VVG the_AT question_NN1 tells_VVZ your_APPGE examiner_NN1 nothing_PN1 about_II what_DDQ you_PPY know_VV0 ,_, and_CC takes_VVZ up_II time_NNT1 and_CC space_NN1 ._. 
Reworking_VVG the_AT question_NN1 into_II a_AT1 related_JJ generalisation_NN1 ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, shows_VVZ that_CST you_PPY understand_VV0 something_PN1 of_IO the_AT complexities_NN2 it_PPH1 contains_VVZ ._. 
Similarly_RR ,_, as_CSA you_PPY rework_VV0 the_AT question_NN1 into_II your_APPGE first_MD sentence_NN1 you_PPY can_VM begin_VVI to_TO show_VVI that_DD1 key_JJ terms_NN2 in_II the_AT question_NN1 are_VBR problematic_JJ or_CC vague_JJ ,_, or_CC you_PPY can_VM suggest_VVI what_DDQ kind_NN1 of_IO evidence_NN1 you_PPY will_VM draw_VVI on_RP to_TO discuss_VVI the_AT question_NN1 ._. 
As_II31 well_II32 as_II33 introducing_VVG the_AT content_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 ,_, your_APPGE first_MD paragraph_NN1 should_VM also_RR explain_VVI its_APPGE organisation_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB do_VD0 n't_XX overdo_VVI this_DD1 by_II being_VBG too_RG overt_JJ ,_, as_CSA in_II this_DD1 opening_NN1 to_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 (_( by_II a_AT1 non-native_JJ speaker_NN1 )_) titled_VVN &quot;_" Lyrical_JJ and_CC Epical_JJ Genres_NN2 in_II Middle_JJ English_JJ Poetry_NN1 &quot;_" :_: I_PPIS1 shall_VM begin_VVI discussing_VVG lyrical_JJ and_CC epical_JJ genres_NN2 in_II Middle_JJ English_JJ poetry_NN1 with_IW the_AT explanation_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 these_DD2 terms_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB before_CS they_PPHS2 will_VM be_VBI explained_VVN it_PPH1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO consider_VVI the_AT term_NN1 genre_NN1 ._. 
Quoting_VVG Burrow_NN1 ..._... 
While_CS this_DD1 beginning_NN1 is_VBZ effective_JJ in_II showing_VVG organisation_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 delays_VVZ getting_VVG into_II the_AT argument_NN1 ,_, and_CC could_VM be_VBI rewritten_VVN in_II the_AT following_JJ way_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ both_RR demonstrates_VVZ organisation_NN1 less_RGR clumsily_RR and_CC gets_VVZ immediately_RR to_II the_AT point_NN1 :_: Since_CS the_AT terms_NN2 &quot;_" lyrical_JJ &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" epic_JJ &quot;_" present_JJ special_JJ difficulties_NN2 when_CS used_VVN of_IO Middle_JJ English_JJ works_NN ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ useful_JJ to_TO introduce_VVI discussion_NN1 of_IO works_NN of_IO the_AT period_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 brief_JJ analysis_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 two_MC terms_NN2 ._. 
And_CC since_CS the_AT larger_JJR concept_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" genre_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, within_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 play_VV0 a_AT1 part_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ also_RR problematic_JJ ,_, my_APPGE discussion_NN1 of_IO the_AT two_MC terms_NN2 will_VM be_VBI prefaced_VVN by_II a_AT1 more_RGR general_JJ discussion_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" genre_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
Interestingly_RR ,_, Burrow_NP1 's_GE suggestion_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 ..._... 
In_II its_APPGE first_MD few_DA2 lines_NN2 ,_, the_AT rewritten_VVN passage_NN1 now_RT offers_VVZ reasons_NN2 for_IF organising_VVG the_AT essay_NN1 in_II the_AT way_NN1 that_CST has_VHZ been_VBN chosen_VVN ,_, and_CC so_RR connects_VVZ the_AT answer_NN1 more_RGR directly_RR with_IW the_AT question_NN1 ._. 
Slightly_RR different_JJ problems_NN2 arise_VV0 in_II our_APPGE next_MD example_NN1 ,_, though_CS again_RT they_PPHS2 are_VBR related_VVN to_II the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT various_JJ topics_NN2 being_VBG introduced_VVN :_: The_AT &quot;_" Sonnet_NN1 on_II the_AT Death_NN1 of_IO Mr_NNB Richard_NP1 West_ND1 &quot;_" contains_VVZ many_DA2 half-rhymes_NN2 and_CC can_VM be_VBI split_VVN into_II two_MC groups_NN2 ,_, the_AT octave_NN1 and_CC the_AT sestet_NN1 ._. 
The_AT sonnet_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 emotional_JJ elegy_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT tone_NN1 is_VBZ mournful_JJ ._. 
The_AT author_NN1 addresses_VVZ the_AT reader_NN1 directly_RR ._. 
In_II this_DD1 passage_NN1 three_MC topics_NN2 are_VBR introduced_VVN :_: the_AT sonnet_NN1 's_GE form_NN1 ,_, its_APPGE tone_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE mode_NN1 of_IO address_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB no_AT link_NN1 is_VBZ suggested_VVN between_II them_PPHO2 ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX yet_RR clear_VV0 what_DDQ the_AT point_NN1 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 is_VBZ ._. 
We_PPIS2 could_VM accordingly_RR rewrite_VVI this_DD1 opening_NN1 as_II :_: In_II the_AT &quot;_" Sonnet_NN1 on_II the_AT Death_NN1 of_IO Mr_NNB Richard_NP1 West_ND1 &quot;_" ,_, formal_JJ qualities_NN2 of_IO the_AT sonnet_NN1 (_( such_II21 as_II22 its_APPGE rhyme_NN1 scheme_NN1 ,_, division_NN1 between_II octave_NN1 and_CC sestet_NN1 and_CC mode_NN1 of_IO address_NN1 )_) are_VBR moulded_VVN to_TO suit_VVI the_AT mournful_JJ tone_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 emotional_JJ elegy_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 revised_JJ version_NN1 the_AT individual_JJ observations_NN2 are_VBR collected_VVN together_RL under_II a_AT1 common_JJ denominator_NN1 (_( labelled_VVN &quot;_" formal_JJ qualities_NN2 &quot;_" )_) and_CC are_VBR linked_VVN to_II the_AT claimed_JJ mood_NN1 of_IO the_AT poem_NN1 ._. 
Instead_CS21 of_CS22 just_RR being_VBG presented_VVN with_IW a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO topics_NN2 ,_, we_PPIS2 now_RT know_VV0 the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT topics_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 helpful_JJ first_MD paragraph_NN1 ,_, then_RT ,_, offers_VVZ your_APPGE reader_NN1 a_AT1 &quot;_" menu_NN1 &quot;_" of_IO what_DDQ will_VM follow_VVI ,_, while_CS at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 already_RR beginning_VVG on_II the_AT argument_NN1 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO remember_VVI that_CST the_AT menu_NN1 should_VM not_XX be_VBI too_RG large_JJ (_( some_DD essays_NN2 become_VV0 very_RG front-heavy_JJ with_IW preliminaries_NN2 )_) ;_; and_CC you_PPY should_VM ensure_VVI that_CST items_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 placed_VVN on_II the_AT menu_NN1 are_VBR actually_RR served_VVN up_II21 to_II22 the_AT reader_NN1 later_RRR ._. 
Sometimes_RT ,_, the_AT subject_NN1 areas_NN2 outlined_VVN are_VBR impossibly_RR large_JJ ,_, given_VVN the_AT essay_NN1 's_GE prescribed_JJ length_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 good_JJ test_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 opening_NN1 sentence_NN1 (_( or_CC paragraph_NN1 )_) to_TO read_VVI it_PPH1 aloud_RR ,_, list_VV0 the_AT topics_NN2 you_PPY think_VV0 it_PPH1 tells_VVZ a_AT1 reader_NN1 to_TO expect_VVI in_II the_AT essay_NN1 ,_, and_CC make_VVI sure_JJ that_CST those_DD2 topics_NN2 coincide_VV0 with_IW your_APPGE planned_JJ contents_NN2 ._. 
Organising_VVG your_APPGE essay_NN1 in_II advance_NN1 changes_VVZ the_AT process_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG a_AT1 first_MD paragraph_NN1 ._. 
Advance_VV0 planning_NN1 makes_VVZ it_PPH1 possible_JJ to_TO write_VVI the_AT essay_NN1 in_II sections_NN2 and_CC put_VVI the_AT sections_NN2 together_RL only_RR at_II the_AT end_NN1 with_IW the_AT result_NN1 that_CST you_PPY do_VD0 not_XX have_VHI to_TO write_VVI the_AT sections_NN2 in_II the_AT order_NN1 in_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 will_VM finally_RR appear_VVI ._. 
You_PPY can_VM write_VVI your_APPGE first_MD paragraph_NN1 when_CS you_PPY have_VH0 finished_VVN the_AT rest_NN1 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 ;_; and_CC at_II that_DD1 point_NN1 ,_, you_PPY will_VM definitely_RR be_VBI able_JK to_TO promise_VVI what_DDQ the_AT essay_NN1 will_VM cover_VVI because_CS you_PPY will_VM have_VHI already_RR written_VVN it._NNU 5.2_MC THE_AT LAST_MD PARAGRAPH_NN1 Your_APPGE reader_NN1 will_VM pay_VVI particular_JJ attention_NN1 to_II your_APPGE last_MD paragraph_NN1 and_CC last_MD sentence_NN1 ,_, largely_RR because_CS the_AT last_MD section_NN1 has_VHZ to_TO bring_VVI to_II a_AT1 suitable_JJ conclusion_NN1 the_AT various_JJ different_JJ arguments_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 made_VVN ._. 
&quot;_" A_AT1 suitable_JJ conclusion_NN1 &quot;_" does_VDZ not_XX mean_VVI just_RR repeating_VVG your_APPGE opening_NN1 sentence_NN1 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY begin_VV0 like_II this_DD1 :_: In_II this_DD1 essay_NN1 ,_, I_PPIS1 will_VM argue_VVI that_CST Henry_NP1 James_NP1 's_GE representations_NN2 and_CC frequent_JJ treatment_NN1 of_IO women_NN2 through_II metaphors_NN2 as_CSA art_NN1 objects_NN2 are_VBR deeply_RR problematic_JJ ._. 
You_PPY should_VM not_XX end_VVI your_APPGE essay_NN1 by_II simply_RR recapitulating_VVG :_: In_II the_AT foregoing_JJ pages_NN2 ,_, I_PPIS1 have_VH0 shown_VVN how_RRQ Henry_NP1 James_NP1 's_GE representations_NN2 and_CC frequent_JJ treatment_NN1 of_IO women_NN2 through_II metaphors_NN2 as_CSA art_NN1 objects_NN2 are_VBR deeply_RR problematic_JJ ._. 
Such_DA repetition_NN1 is_VBZ simply_RR a_AT1 reminder_NN1 ,_, not_XX a_AT1 conclusion_NN1 ._. 
In_II a_AT1 long_JJ dissertation_NN1 it_PPH1 might_VM be_VBI justified_VVN as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO helping_VVG your_APPGE reader_NN1 remember_VVI your_APPGE starting_NN1 point_NN1 ;_; in_II a_AT1 short_JJ essay_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ redundant_JJ and_CC simply_RR shows_VVZ that_CST you_PPY do_VD0 n't_XX know_VVI how_RRQ to_TO finish_VVI ._. 
What_DDQ then_RT would_VM be_VBI a_AT1 &quot;_" suitable_JJ conclusion_NN1 &quot;_" ?_? 
This_DD1 depends_VVZ on_II the_AT aims_NN2 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 might_VM include_VVI :_: a_AT1 judgement_NN1 about_II which_DDQ of_IO the_AT competing_JJ arguments_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 considered_VVN in_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 is_VBZ correct_JJ or_CC most_RGT persuasive_JJ ;_; an_AT1 evaluation_NN1 or_CC assessment_NN1 of_IO the_AT qualities_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 work_NN1 or_CC writer_NN1 ,_, based_VVN on_II arguments_NN2 presented_VVN in_II the_AT essay_NN1 ;_; an_AT1 indication_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ consequences_NN2 follow_VV0 from_II what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 shown_VVN in_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY want_VV0 to_TO suggest_VVI consequences_NN2 or_CC implications_NN2 ,_, try_VVI ending_VVG by_II answering_VVG these_DD2 questions_NN2 :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) Have_VH0 you_PPY discovered_VVN any_DD methods_NN2 which_DDQ can_VM now_RT be_VBI used_VVN to_TO investigate_VVI another_DD1 text_NN1 or_CC author_NN1 ?_? (_( b_ZZ1 )_) Does_VDZ your_APPGE argument_NN1 suggest_VVI that_CST we_PPIS2 should_VM look_VVI again_RT at_II some_DD other_JJ area_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ we_PPIS2 might_VM now_RT view_VVI differently_RR ?_? (_( c_ZZ1 )_) Can_VM you_PPY extend_VVI what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 said_VVN to_II other_JJ works_NN by_II the_AT same_DA author_NN1 ,_, by_II other_JJ authors_NN2 ,_, or_CC to_II other_JJ works_NN of_IO the_AT same_DA period_NN1 ?_? (_( d_ZZ1 )_) Can_VM you_PPY make_VVI any_DD important_JJ general_JJ observations_NN2 ,_, using_VVG your_APPGE whole_JJ essay_NN1 as_II an_AT1 illustration_NN1 or_CC case_NN1 study_NN1 ?_? 
Each_DD1 of_IO the_AT questions_NN2 above_RL is_VBZ worth_II exploring_VVG ,_, especially_RR because_CS final_JJ paragraphs_NN2 and_CC sentences_NN2 often_RR fall_VV0 into_II one_MC1 of_IO a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO largely_RR unsatisfactory_JJ idioms_NN2 ,_, each_DD1 with_IW its_APPGE own_DA way_NN1 of_IO dealing_VVG with_IW ending_VVG less_RRR as_II an_AT1 opportunity_NN1 than_CSN as_II an_AT1 escape_NN1 ._. 
We_PPIS2 indicate_VV0 some_DD of_IO the_AT idioms_NN2 below_RL ._. 
The_AT &quot;_" farewell_NN1 speech_NN1 &quot;_" Avoid_VV0 the_AT sort_NN1 of_IO ending_NN1 used_VVN in_II this_DD1 essay_NN1 on_II &quot;_" Genres_NN2 of_IO the_AT Old_JJ English_JJ Poetry_NN1 &quot;_" :_: And_CC in_II this_DD1 way_NN1 we_PPIS2 have_VH0 come_VVN to_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO our_APPGE characterisation_NN1 of_IO the_AT main_JJ genres_NN2 of_IO the_AT oldest_JJT vernacular_JJ poetry_NN1 in_II Western_NP1 Europe_NP1 ;_; poetry_NN1 which_DDQ achieved_VVD so_RG great_JJ variety_NN1 over_II the_AT 8th_MD ,_, 9th_MD ,_, and_CC 10th_MD centuries_NNT2 ._. 
The_AT phrase_NN1 &quot;_" come_VVN to_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO our_APPGE &quot;_" suggests_VVZ a_AT1 pleasant_JJ ,_, shared_JJ experience_NN1 or_CC excursion_NN1 ;_; and_CC the_AT expression_NN1 &quot;_" oldest_JJT vernacular_JJ poetry_NN1 in_II Western_NP1 Europe_NP1 &quot;_" calls_VVZ to_TO mind_VVI less_RRR the_AT language_NN1 of_IO analysis_NN1 or_CC scholarship_NN1 than_CSN that_DD1 of_IO advertising_NN1 or_CC publicity_NN1 (_( where_CS things_NN2 are_VBR valued_VVN because_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR the_AT best_JJT ,_, the_AT oldest_JJT ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) ._. 
These_DD2 features_NN2 of_IO the_AT style_NN1 ,_, coupled_VVN with_IW the_AT exclamatory_JJ force_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" so_RR &quot;_" (_( &quot;_" so_RG great_JJ variety_NN1 &quot;_" )_) give_VV0 an_AT1 overall_JJ effect_NN1 that_CST the_AT conclusion_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 promotional_JJ ,_, or_CC uncritically_RR praising_VVG ,_, piece_NN1 of_IO writing_NN1 ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 an_AT1 academic_JJ study_NN1 ._. 
Both_DB2 the_AT intentions_NN2 and_CC the_AT style_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 final_JJ sentence_NN1 are_VBR inappropriate_JJ ._. 
Indecisiveness_NN1 disguised_VVN as_CSA fairness_NN1 Your_APPGE essay_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 argument_NN1 ,_, and_CC you_PPY should_VM present_VVI different_JJ sides_NN2 of_IO that_DD1 argument_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ this_DD1 argument_NN1 which_DDQ your_APPGE first_MD paragraph_NN1 promises_NN2 and_CC to_II which_DDQ your_APPGE last_MD paragraph_NN1 offers_VVZ a_AT1 conclusion_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB your_APPGE conclusion_NN1 can_VM properly_RR come_VVI to_II a_AT1 decision_NN1 on_II one_MC1 side_NN1 ,_, and_CC need_VV0 not_XX remain_VVI balanced_JJ (_( so_RR avoid_VV0 :_: &quot;_" both_DB2 sides_NN2 have_VH0 their_APPGE virtues_NN2 and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ difficult_JJ to_TO decide_VVI between_II them_PPHO2 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ perfectly_RR acceptable_JJ to_TO draw_VVI conclusions_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE own_DA ,_, based_VVN on_II the_AT arguments_NN2 and_CC evidence_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 presented_VVN ._. 
The_AT challenge_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO show_VVI that_CST you_PPY have_VH0 answered_VVN the_AT question_NN1 but_CCB have_VH0 got_VVN there_RL by_II fair_JJ consideration_NN1 of_IO all_DB positions_NN2 ._. 
Falling_VVG over_RP backwards_RL Consider_VV0 this_DD1 final_JJ sentence_NN1 from_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II the_AT element_NN1 of_IO satire_NN1 in_II two_MC Restoration_NN1 dramatists_NN2 :_: Both_DB2 playwrights_NN2 succeed_VV0 in_II mixing_VVG description_NN1 with_IW analysis_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ conveyed_VVN in_II entertaining_JJ prose_NN1 ._. 
Here_RL the_AT problem_NN1 lies_VVZ in_II the_AT generality_NN1 of_IO the_AT terms_NN2 &quot;_" description_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" analysis_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, as_RG well_RR as_CSA in_II the_AT anti-climactic_JJ phrase_NN1 &quot;_" entertaining_JJ prose_NN1 &quot;_" as_II the_AT final_JJ words_NN2 of_IO the_AT piece_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Entertaining_JJ &quot;_" is_VBZ too_RG unspecific_JJ a_AT1 notion_NN1 ,_, as_CS21 though_CS22 you_PPY had_VHD slipped_VVN backwards_RL in_II the_AT argument_NN1 after_II reaching_VVG more_RGR sophisticated_JJ peaks_NN2 of_IO describing_VVG the_AT details_NN2 of_IO satire_NN1 ._. 
The_AT point_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 ending_NN1 is_VBZ for_IF the_AT conclusion_NN1 to_TO look_VVI backwards_RL ,_, not_XX to_TO carry_VVI the_AT argument_NN1 backwards_RL ._. 
The_AT higher_JJR authority_NN1 When_CS you_PPY write_VV0 an_AT1 essay_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 both_RR the_AT opportunity_NN1 and_CC the_AT responsibility_NN1 to_TO state_VVI your_APPGE own_DA views_NN2 in_II your_APPGE own_DA words_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ often_RR tempting_JJ to_TO think_VVI that_CST some_DD critic_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 read_VVN can_VM summarise_VVI your_APPGE viewpoint_NN1 better_RRR than_CSN you_PPY yourself_PPX1 can_VM ,_, and_CC so_RR to_TO end_VVI your_APPGE essay_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 quotation_NN1 from_II someone_PN1 else_RR ._. 
We_PPIS2 talk_VV0 later_RRR in_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 about_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO other_JJ people_NN 's_GE words_NN2 ,_, making_VVG the_AT point_NN1 that_CST one_MC1 problem_NN1 with_IW other_JJ people_NN 's_GE words_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST they_PPHS2 usually_RR make_VV0 more_DAR sense_NN1 where_CS they_PPHS2 come_VV0 from_II than_CSN where_CS you_PPY put_VV0 them_PPHO2 in_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 ._. 
Because_CS your_APPGE conclusion_NN1 is_VBZ so_RG important_JJ ,_, you_PPY ca_VM n't_XX risk_VVI the_AT slightly_RR different_JJ emphases_NN2 and_CC directions_NN2 which_DDQ someone_PN1 else_RR 's_GE words_NN2 are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO carry_VVI ._. 
Because_CS your_APPGE essay_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX identical_JJ with_IW theirs_PPGE ,_, there_EX is_VBZ little_DA1 chance_NN1 that_CST someone_PN1 else_RR 's_GE words_NN2 will_VM be_VBI exactly_RR right_JJ as_II a_AT1 conclusion_NN1 to_II your_APPGE argument_NN1 ._. 
The_AT disconnected_JJ personal_JJ opinion_NN1 Concluding_VVG with_IW your_APPGE own_DA words_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, requires_VVZ caution_NN1 ,_, particularly_RR in_II the_AT handling_NN1 of_IO personal_JJ response_NN1 ._. 
Despite_II the_AT instruction_NN1 often_RR given_VVN by_II teachers_NN2 to_TO emphasise_VVI personal_JJ involvement_NN1 towards_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 essay_NN1 ,_, you_PPY should_VM avoid_VVI the_AT sort_NN1 of_IO over-personalised_JJ ending_NN1 found_VVN in_II this_DD1 essay_NN1 :_: After_II reading_VVG the_AT first_MD paragraph_NN1 ,_, I_PPIS1 did_VDD n't_XX expect_VVI such_DA an_AT1 exciting_JJ story_NN1 ,_, but_CCB gradually_RR I_PPIS1 got_VVD more_RRR and_CC more_RGR involved_JJ in_II the_AT narrative_NN1 and_CC finally_RR overwhelmed_VVN by_II this_DD1 splendid_JJ spectacle_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ I_PPIS1 could_VM vividly_RR visualise_VVI ._. 
This_DD1 sudden_JJ introduction_NN1 of_IO personal_JJ involvement_NN1 into_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 which_DDQ was_VBDZ otherwise_RR a_AT1 dispassionate_JJ description_NN1 is_VBZ disruptive_JJ ,_, and_CC sounds_VVZ as_CS21 though_CS22 the_AT writer_NN1 really_RR wanted_VVN to_TO write_VVI much_RR more_RGR personally_RR (_( so_RR indicating_VVG a_AT1 kind_NN1 of_IO dissatisfaction_NN1 with_IW the_AT essay_NN1 as_CSA it_PPH1 stands_VVZ )_) ._. 
5.3_MC DIVIDING_VVG YOUR_APPGE ESSAY_NN1 INTO_II SECTIONS_NN2 AND_CC PARAGRAPHS_NN2 Having_VHG considered_VVN its_APPGE two_MC most_RGT prominent_JJ sections_NN2 the_AT beginning_NN1 and_CC the_AT end_NN1 we_PPIS2 turn_VV0 now_RT to_II the_AT structure_NN1 of_IO the_AT rest_NN1 the_AT &quot;_" body_NN1 &quot;_" of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 ._. 
Like_II a_AT1 human_JJ body_NN1 ,_, the_AT body_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 is_VBZ made_VVN up_RP of_IO parts_NN2 :_: in_II this_DD1 case_NN1 paragraphs_NN2 and_CC perhaps_RR numbered_VVN or_CC titled_VVN sections_NN2 and_CC subsections_NN2 ._. 
You_PPY should_VM gather_VVI all_DB your_APPGE ideas_NN2 on_II the_AT same_DA general_JJ point_NN1 into_II the_AT same_DA section_NN1 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 the_AT essay_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO move_VVI forward_RL consistently_RR rather_CS21 than_CS22 jump_VVI around_RP ;_; you_PPY can_VM test_VVI whether_CSW the_AT essay_NN1 does_VDZ have_VHI this_DD1 sort_NN1 of_IO organisation_NN1 by_II working_VVG out_RP an_AT1 appropriate_JJ title_NN1 for_IF each_DD1 section_NN1 and_CC paragraph_NN1 (_( even_CS21 though_CS22 in_II the_AT final_JJ version_NN1 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 your_APPGE paragraphs_NN2 at_RR21 least_RR22 will_VM lose_VVI their_APPGE titles_NN2 )_) ._. 
Your_APPGE outline_NN1 (_( see_VV0 above_RL ,_, Chapter_NN1 1_MC1 ,_, pp._NNU2 224_MC and_CC Chapter_NN1 3_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 5961_MC )_) will_VM indicate_VVI what_DDQ needs_VVZ to_TO go_VVI into_II each_DD1 part_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 ,_, and_CC enables_VVZ you_PPY to_TO write_VVI the_AT different_JJ parts_NN2 in_II any_DD order_NN1 you_PPY wish_VV0 ._. 
Each_DD1 topic_NN1 in_II the_AT sequence_NN1 of_IO topics_NN2 contained_VVN in_II your_APPGE outline_NN1 can_VM be_VBI translated_VVN into_II a_AT1 section_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 ._. 
In_II a_AT1 short_JJ essay_NN1 the_AT sections_NN2 will_VM be_VBI paragraphs_NN2 ;_; in_II a_AT1 long_JJ essay_NN1 you_PPY can_VM combine_VVI the_AT paragraphs_NN2 into_II titled_JJ and_CC or_CC numbered_JJ sections_NN2 and_CC sub-sections_NN2 ._. 
In_II making_VVG these_DD2 organisational_JJ decisions_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO ensure_VVI that_CST you_PPY do_VD0 not_XX put_VVI in_RP too_RG many_DA2 markers_NN2 of_IO structure_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ can_VM make_VVI the_AT essay_NN1 seem_VVI to_TO be_VBI all_DB scaffolding_NN1 with_IW no_AT building_NN1 inside_RL ._. 
Management_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 should_VM not_XX overwhelm_VVI its_APPGE content_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 major_JJ reason_NN1 for_IF breaking_VVG your_APPGE essay_NN1 into_II parts_NN2 is_VBZ to_TO signal_VVI how_RRQ each_DD1 part_NN1 relates_VVZ to_II the_AT whole_NN1 ._. 
Accordingly_RR ,_, as_CSA you_PPY convert_VV0 your_APPGE plan_NN1 into_II a_AT1 series_NN of_IO sections_NN2 or_CC paragraph_NN1 topics_NN2 ,_, you_PPY should_VM think_VVI carefully_RR about_II the_AT logical_JJ or_CC rhetorical_JJ relationship_NN1 between_II them_PPHO2 :_: e.g._REX cause_NN1 and_CC effect_NN1 ;_; particularisation_NN1 and_CC specification_NN1 ;_; illustration_NN1 (_( if_CS so_RR ,_, of_IO what_DDQ exactly_RR ?_? )_) ._. 
Each_DD1 paragraph_NN1 should_VM begin_VVI with_IW a_AT1 sentence_NN1 which_DDQ relates_VVZ what_DDQ comes_VVZ next_II21 to_II22 the_AT last_MD point_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 made_VVN and_CC to_II the_AT structure_NN1 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 does_VDZ not_XX need_VVI to_TO be_VBI done_VDN explicitly_RR (_( e.g._REX through_II devices_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" in_II the_AT last_MD paragraph_NN1 ,_, I_PPIS1 have_VH0 argued_VVN ..._... &quot;_" )_) ,_, but_CCB can_VM be_VBI achieved_VVN by_II phrases_NN2 like_II &quot;_" this_DD1 x_ZZ1 &quot;_" ,_, or_CC &quot;_" the_AT idea_NN1 that_CST x_ZZ1 &quot;_" (_( where_CS x_ZZ1 is_VBZ a_AT1 term_NN1 or_CC phrase_NN1 used_VVN in_II the_AT previous_JJ paragraph_NN1 )_) ._. 
If_CS you_PPY do_VD0 use_VVI sub-sections_NN2 you_PPY can_VM number_VVI them_PPHO2 (_( 1_MC1 ,_, 1.1_MC ,_, 1.2_MC ,_, etc._RA )_) or_CC give_VV0 them_PPHO2 short_JJ titles_NN2 which_DDQ indicate_VV0 what_DDQ they_PPHS2 contain_VV0 ._. 
Avoid_VV0 formal_JJ labels_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" Introduction_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" Conclusion_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, which_DDQ are_VBR redundant_JJ ;_; instead_RR you_PPY might_VM say_VVI something_PN1 along_II the_AT lines_NN2 of_IO &quot;_" Introduction_NN1 :_: symbolism_NN1 as_II an_AT1 issue_NN1 in_II 'The_NN1 Captain_NN1 's_GE Doll'_NP1 &quot;_" ._. 
A_AT1 useful_JJ test_NN1 of_IO how_RGQ effective_JJ your_APPGE section_NN1 headings_NN2 are_VBR is_VBZ that_CST it_PPH1 should_VM be_VBI possible_JJ to_TO string_VVI them_PPHO2 together_RL into_II a_AT1 paraphrase_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ the_AT essay_NN1 says_VVZ ._. 
Your_APPGE reader_NN1 knows_VVZ what_DDQ is_VBZ in_II a_AT1 section_NN1 because_CS it_PPH1 has_VHZ a_AT1 title_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 paragraph_NN1 ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, has_VHZ its_APPGE main_JJ point_NN1 or_CC direction_NN1 indicated_VVN in_II the_AT opening_NN1 sentence_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ sometimes_RT called_VVN a_AT1 TOPIC_NN1 SENTENCE_NN1 ._. 
(_( Sometimes_RT the_AT closing_JJ sentence_NN1 performs_VVZ a_AT1 similar_JJ role_NN1 ._. )_) 
It_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI useful_JJ practice_NN1 to_TO read_VVI through_II the_AT first_MD sentences_NN2 of_IO paragraphs_NN2 which_DDQ make_VV0 up_RP a_AT1 published_JJ essay_NN1 ,_, to_TO see_VVI how_RGQ much_DA1 work_NN1 of_IO summary_NN1 and_CC of_IO signposting_VVG is_VBZ being_VBG done_VDN by_II these_DD2 &quot;_" topic_NN1 sentences_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
Paragraphs_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX function_VVI identically_RR in_II all_DB languages_NN2 and_CC cultures_NN2 ,_, however_RR ._. 
So_RR paragraphing_VVG may_VM present_VVI some_DD bilingual_JJ writers_NN2 working_VVG in_II a_AT1 second_MD language_NN1 with_IW greater_JJR difficulties_NN2 than_CSN writers_NN2 whose_DDQGE experience_NN1 is_VBZ confined_VVN to_II the_AT language_NN1 and_CC culture_NN1 in_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 are_VBR writing_VVG ._. 
Typically_RR in_II English_NN1 a_AT1 paragraph_NN1 is_VBZ unified_VVN by_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 brings_VVZ together_RL material_NN1 around_II a_AT1 single_JJ point_NN1 or_CC topic_NN1 indicated_VVN in_II the_AT first_MD sentence_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 way_NN1 of_IO doing_VDG this_DD1 is_VBZ to_II structure_NN1 your_APPGE paragraph_NN1 as_II :_: First_MD sentence_NN1 (_( topic_NN1 sentence_NN1 )_) ,_, makes_VVZ the_AT main_JJ claim_NN1 of_IO the_AT paragraph_NN1 (_( and_CC tries_VVZ also_RR to_TO link_VVI the_AT paragraph_NN1 with_IW what_DDQ came_VVD before_II )_) +_FO subsequent_JJ sentences_NN2 :_: justify_VV0 or_CC illustrate_VV0 the_AT claim_NN1 ;_; +_FO final_JJ sentence_NN1 :_: sums_VVZ up_RP the_AT paragraph_NN1 (_( and_CC perhaps_RR tries_VVZ also_RR to_TO link_VVI the_AT paragraph_NN1 with_IW what_DDQ will_VM come_VVI next_MD )_) ._. 
This_DD1 basic_JJ pattern_NN1 is_VBZ illustrated_VVN by_II the_AT following_JJ ,_, complete_JJ four-sentence_JJ paragraph_NN1 (_( here_RL split_VV0 into_II parts_NN2 and_CC with_IW sentence_NN1 numbers_NN2 added_VVN )_) ._. 
Topic_NN1 sentence_NN1 (_( which_DDQ makes_VVZ the_AT main_JJ claim_NN1 of_IO the_AT paragraph_NN1 )_) :_: (_( 1_MC1 )_) In_II Chapter_NN1 2_MC Fitzgerald_NP1 introduces_VVZ one_MC1 of_IO the_AT most_RGT important_JJ patterns_NN2 of_IO the_AT novel_NN1 :_: the_AT &quot;_" waste_NN1 land_NN1 motif_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
Subsequent_JJ sentences_NN2 (_( which_DDQ justify_VV0 or_CC illustrate_VV0 the_AT claim_NN1 )_) :_: (_( 2_MC )_) Nothing_PN1 in_II the_AT book_NN1 emphasises_VVZ the_AT corruption_NN1 of_IO the_AT American_JJ dream_NN1 more_RRR than_CSN this_DD1 image_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" the_AT valley_NN1 of_IO ashes_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
(_( 3_MC )_) In_II 1922_MC T.S._NP2 Eliot_NP1 published_VVD his_PPGE highly_RR influential_JJ poem_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" The_AT Waste_NN1 Land_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, in_II which_DDQ he_PPHS1 described_VVD Western_JJ civilisation_NN1 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 decay_NN1 and_CC desperation_NN1 ._. 
Final_JJ sentence_NN1 (_( which_DDQ sums_VVZ up_RP the_AT paragraph_NN1 )_) :_: (_( 4_MC )_) In_II The_AT Great_JJ Gatsby_NP1 Fitzgerald_NP1 picks_VVZ up_RP the_AT theme_NN1 :_: the_AT valley_NN1 of_IO ashes_NN2 is_VBZ the_AT general_JJ locale_NN1 ,_, all_DB the_AT characters_NN2 of_IO the_AT story_NN1 have_VH0 to_TO pass_VVI through_II it_PPH1 ._. 
Sentence_NN1 (_( 1_MC1 )_) introduces_VVZ the_AT topic_NN1 of_IO the_AT paragraph_NN1 :_: the_AT functioning_NN1 of_IO the_AT &quot;_" waste_NN1 land_NN1 motif_NN1 &quot;_" in_II the_AT organisation_NN1 of_IO The_AT Great_JJ Gatsby_NP1 ._. 
Sentence_NN1 (_( 2_MC )_) then_RT offers_VVZ a_AT1 meaning_NN1 for_IF the_AT motif_NN1 :_: a_AT1 critique_NN1 of_IO the_AT corruption_NN1 of_IO the_AT American_JJ dream_NN1 ._. 
Sentence_NN1 (_( 3_MC )_) opens_VVZ with_IW an_AT1 apparent_JJ change_NN1 of_IO topic_NN1 ,_, but_CCB implicitly_RR connects_VVZ the_AT new_JJ topic_NN1 with_IW the_AT already_RR established_VVN topic_NN1 of_IO the_AT paragraph_NN1 in_II a_AT1 thematic_JJ parallel_NN1 to_TO be_VBI found_VVN in_II T.S._NP2 Eliot_NP1 's_GE concern_NN1 with_IW &quot;_" decay_NN1 and_CC desperation_NN1 &quot;_" which_DDQ also_RR provides_VVZ a_AT1 source_NN1 for_IF the_AT name_NN1 of_IO the_AT motif_NN1 ,_, the_AT &quot;_" waste_NN1 land_NN1 motif_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
Finally_RR ,_, in_II sentence_NN1 (_( 4_MC )_) the_AT parallel_NN1 between_II Eliot_NP1 and_CC Fitzgerald_NP1 is_VBZ drawn_VVN explicitly_RR ,_, and_CC the_AT way_NN1 the_AT motif_NN1 works_VVZ in_II the_AT novel_NN1 is_VBZ explained_VVN ,_, so_RR completing_VVG a_AT1 miniature_JJ demonstration_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ was_VBDZ promised_VVN in_II the_AT paragraph_NN1 's_GE opening_NN1 ,_, topic_NN1 sentence_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 short_JJ essay_NN1 covering_VVG four_MC A4_FO pages_NN2 (_( about_RG 1,200_MC words_NN2 )_) might_VM well_RR be_VBI divided_VVN into_II about_RG eight_MC paragraphs_NN2 ._. 
Too_RG few_DA2 paragraphs_NN2 can_VM make_VVI the_AT essay_NN1 difficult_JJ to_TO follow_VVI ,_, both_RR visually_RR and_CC conceptually_RR ,_, and_CC suggests_VVZ that_CST it_PPH1 may_VM not_XX have_VHI an_AT1 underlying_JJ argument_NN1 structure_NN1 at_RR21 all_RR22 ._. 
If_CS the_AT paragraphs_NN2 are_VBR consistently_RR very_RG short_JJ ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 (_( e.g._REX just_JJ one_MC1 or_CC two_MC sentences_NN2 )_) ,_, then_RT the_AT subdivisions_NN2 being_VBG made_VVN become_VVI too_RG complicated_JJ for_IF a_AT1 more_RGR general_JJ ,_, structural_JJ image_NN1 of_IO the_AT essay_NN1 to_TO be_VBI deduced_VVN ,_, which_DDQ defeats_NN2 the_AT point_NN1 of_IO having_VHG paragraphs_NN2 at_RR21 all_RR22 ._. 
In_II general_JJ terms_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 paragraph_NN1 should_VM have_VHI several_DA2 sentences_NN2 ,_, and_CC might_VM cover_VVI about_RG half_DB a_AT1 page_NN1 of_IO A4_FO (_( about_RG 100_MC to_II 150_MC words_NN2 )_) ._. 
5.4_MC SIGNPOSTING_NP1 AND_CC CONNECTIVES_NN2 It_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX only_JJ headings_NN2 and_CC topic_NN1 sentences_NN2 at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO paragraphs_NN2 which_DDQ signal_VV0 the_AT directions_NN2 in_II which_DDQ an_AT1 essay_NN1 is_VBZ progressing_VVG ,_, however_RR ._. 
Most_DAT sentences_NN2 in_II written_JJ prose_NN1 are_VBR explicitly_RR linked_VVN with_IW the_AT sentence_NN1 which_DDQ precedes_VVZ them_PPHO2 ,_, producing_VVG an_AT1 overall_JJ effect_NN1 of_IO COHESION_NN1 ._. 
Consider_VV0 this_DD1 brief_JJ passage_NN1 ,_, from_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 by_II a_AT1 non-native_JJ speaker_NN1 (_( numbers_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN added_VVN to_TO identify_VVI sentences_NN2 )_) :_: &lsqb;_( 1_MC1 &rsqb;_) One_MC1 of_IO the_AT functions_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 literary_JJ work_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO pass_VVI on_RP some_DD crucial_JJ truths_NN2 or_CC information_NN1 ,_, give_VV0 some_DD didactic_JJ indications_NN2 ,_, or_CC convince_VV0 the_AT reader_NN1 of_IO some_DD general_JJ laws._NNU &lsqb;_( 2_MC &rsqb;_) The_AT dream_NN1 vision_NN1 convention_NN1 was_VBDZ employed_VVN by_II the_AT Middle_JJ English_JJ writers_NN2 for_IF such_DA reasons_NN2 ;_; &lsqb;_( 3_MC &rsqb;_) and_CC it_PPH1 enjoyed_VVD great_JJ popularity._NNU &lsqb;_( 4_MC &rsqb;_) Discovering_VVG this_DD1 literary_JJ phenomenon_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 should_VM realise_VVI that_CST the_AT contemporary_JJ reader_NN1 of_IO Middle_JJ English_NN1 lived_VVD in_II a_AT1 different_JJ social_JJ and_CC cultural_JJ reality_NN1 from_II ours._NNU &lsqb;_( 5_MC &rsqb;_) So_CS the_AT dream_NN1 vision_NN1 must_VM have_VHI had_VHN a_AT1 tremendous_JJ impact_NN1 on_II his_APPGE perception_NN1 of_IO the_AT world_NN1 ._. 
Notice_VV0 that_CST this_DD1 paragraph_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX only_RR held_VVN together_RL by_II the_AT sort_NN1 of_IO unity_NN1 ,_, or_CC development_NN1 of_IO ideas_NN2 ,_, that_CST we_PPIS2 described_VVD in_II the_AT Great_JJ Gatsby_NP1 example_NN1 above_RL ._. 
We_PPIS2 can_VM also_RR identify_VVI a_AT1 series_NN of_IO formal_JJ markers_NN2 of_IO connection_NN1 between_II the_AT respective_JJ sentences_NN2 ._. 
Sentence_NN1 (_( 2_MC )_) is_VBZ connected_VVN to_II (_( 1_MC1 )_) ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, by_II the_AT phrase_NN1 &quot;_" for_IF such_DA reasons_NN2 &quot;_" ,_, which_DDQ refers_VVZ back_RP to_II the_AT reasons_NN2 listed_VVN in_II (_( 1_MC1 )_) ,_, as_RG well_RR as_CSA by_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST the_AT &quot;_" dream_NN1 vision_NN1 convention_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ recognisable_JJ as_II an_AT1 aspect_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" a_AT1 literary_JJ work_NN1 &quot;_" referred_VVN to_II in_II (_( 1_MC1 )_) ._. 
Sentence_NN1 (_( 3_MC )_) is_VBZ linked_VVN to_II (_( 2_MC )_) by_II the_AT additive_JJ connective_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" ,_, as_RG well_RR as_CSA by_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST &quot;_" it_PPH1 &quot;_" refers_VVZ back_RP to_TO &quot;_" dream_VVI vision_NN1 convention_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
Sentence_NN1 (_( 4_MC )_) is_VBZ connected_VVN with_IW (_( 3_MC )_) by_II the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" this_DD1 &quot;_" ,_, which_DDQ again_RT refers_VVZ to_TO &quot;_" dream_VVI vision_NN1 convention_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, as_RG well_RR as_CSA by_II the_AT repetition_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" Middle_JJ English_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
Sentence_NN1 (_( 5_MC )_) connects_VVZ with_IW (_( 4_MC )_) because_II21 of_II22 a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO features_NN2 :_: the_AT repetition_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" dream_NN1 vision_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; the_AT logical_JJ connection_NN1 indicated_VVN by_II &quot;_" so_RR &quot;_" ;_; the_AT connection_NN1 in_II meaning_VVG between_II &quot;_" world_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC the_AT phrase_NN1 &quot;_" social_JJ and_CC cultural_JJ reality_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; and_CC by_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST &quot;_" his_PPGE &quot;_" refers_VVZ back_RP to_II the_AT &quot;_" contemporary_JJ reader_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ significant_JJ about_II formal_JJ markers_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 kind_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST they_PPHS2 achieve_VV0 two_MC related_JJ effects_NN2 in_II academic_JJ writing_NN1 (_( as_CSA in_II discourse_NN1 more_RGR generally_RR )_) ._. 
Firstly_RR ,_, they_PPHS2 bind_VV0 a_AT1 piece_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG together_RL as_II a_AT1 single_JJ entity_NN1 ,_, giving_VVG it_PPH1 a_AT1 connectedness_NN1 that_CST makes_VVZ it_PPH1 read_VVI as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 as_II a_AT1 string_NN1 of_IO separate_JJ jottings_NN2 ._. 
Secondly_RR ,_, many_DA2 of_IO the_AT markers_NN2 signal_VV0 specific_JJ often_RR logical_JJ relationships_NN2 between_II one_MC1 sentence_NN1 and_CC another_DD1 (_( as_CSA &quot;_" so_RR &quot;_" does_VDZ in_II the_AT passage_NN1 above_RL )_) ;_; such_DA markers_NN2 control_VV0 the_AT progression_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE writing_NN1 from_II idea_NN1 to_II idea_NN1 ._. 
For_IF this_DD1 reason_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ in_II essay-writing_JJ to_TO learn_VVI how_RRQ to_TO handle_VVI markers_NN2 of_IO cohesion_NN1 ,_, and_CC to_TO sensitise_VVI yourself_PPX1 to_II the_AT underlying_JJ relations_NN2 of_IO meaning_NN1 they_PPHS2 signal_VV0 ._. 
The_AT formal_JJ markers_NN2 of_IO connectedness_NN1 described_VVN above_RL indicate_VV0 in_RR21 general_RR22 that_CST one_MC1 statement_NN1 is_VBZ about_RPK to_TO be_VBI amplified_VVN ,_, supported_VVN or_CC qualified_VVN by_II ,_, or_CC alternatively_RR contrasted_VVD with_IW ,_, the_AT next_MD statement_NN1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR a_AT1 range_NN1 of_IO signals_NN2 which_DDQ can_VM be_VBI used_VVN in_II this_DD1 way_NN1 ._. 
Each_DD1 indicates_VVZ quite_RG specifically_RR how_RRQ a_AT1 following_JJ statement_NN1 will_VM build_VVI on_II the_AT preceding_JJ one_PN1 ,_, and_CC we_PPIS2 list_VV0 some_DD of_IO them_PPHO2 in_II the_AT grid_NN1 on_II the_AT following_JJ pages_NN2 ._. 
Read_VV0 along_RP the_AT top_NN1 of_IO the_AT grid_NN1 to_TO see_VVI kinds_NN2 of_IO transition_NN1 ,_, and_CC down_II the_AT left-hand_JJ side_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 list_NN1 of_IO common_JJ connective_JJ expressions_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 good_JJ test_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 essay_NN1 's_GE cohesion_NN1 to_TO work_VVI through_II a_AT1 draft_NN1 underlining_VVG all_DB its_APPGE cohesive_JJ devices_NN2 ,_, perhaps_RR using_VVG the_AT list_NN1 we_PPIS2 provide_VV0 here_RL ._. 
Cohesive_JJ markers_NN2 are_VBR not_XX always_RR necessary_JJ ,_, but_CCB where_CS you_PPY find_VV0 sentences_NN2 without_IW evident_JJ markers_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI useful_JJ to_TO inspect_VVI them_PPHO2 closely_RR to_TO be_VBI certain_JJ that_CST the_AT relationship_NN1 with_IW the_AT preceding_JJ sentence_NN1 is_VBZ sufficiently_RR clear_JJ ._. 
Do_VD0 not_XX think_VVI ,_, though_CS ,_, that_DD1 simply_RR because_CS you_PPY have_VH0 inserted_VVN cohesive_JJ devices_NN2 the_AT logical_JJ or_CC rhetorical_JJ relationships_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 are_VBR therefore_RR adequately_RR constructed_VVN ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO use_VVI cohesive_JJ markers_NN2 which_DDQ are_VBR incompatible_JJ with_IW the_AT sentences_NN2 they_PPHS2 are_VBR supposed_JJ to_TO link_VVI ;_; the_AT resulting_JJ effect_NN1 is_VBZ one_MC1 of_IO a_AT1 cohesive_JJ text_NN1 which_DDQ remains_VVZ incoherent_JJ ._. 
Consider_VV0 in_II this_DD1 light_NN1 the_AT following_JJ example_NN1 :_: It_PPH1 is_VBZ unlikely_JJ that_CST Shakespeare_NP1 or_CC the_AT majority_NN1 of_IO writers_NN2 in_II construction_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE work_NN1 imagined_VVD the_AT twentieth-century_JJ reader_NN1 or_CC considered_VVD the_AT possibility_NN1 that_CST the_AT reader_NN1 would_VM be_VBI of_IO another_DD1 race_NN1 or_CC colour_NN1 than_CSN his_APPGE own_DA (_( the_AT exception_NN1 to_II this_DD1 assumption_NN1 can_VM be_VBI found_VVN in_II later_JJR twentieth-century_JJ writers_NN2 )_) ._. 
However_RR ,_, Shakespeare_NP1 wrote_VVD &quot;_" Othello_NP1 &quot;_" ._. 
Notice_VV0 here_RL the_AT slight_JJ oddity_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" however_RR &quot;_" ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ clear_JJ that_CST an_AT1 element_NN1 of_IO contrast_NN1 is_VBZ intended_VVN ,_, with_IW a_AT1 meaning_NN1 something_PN1 like_II &quot;_" in_II writing_VVG Othello_NP1 ,_, Shakespeare_NP1 becomes_VVZ an_AT1 exception_NN1 ,_, and_CC so_RR stands_VVZ in_II contrast_NN1 to_II other_JJ writers_NN2 '_GE ._. 
But_CCB the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" however_RR &quot;_" here_RL does_VDZ not_XX focus_VVI the_AT contrast_NN1 in_II quite_RG this_DD1 way_NN1 ._. 
Rather_RR ,_, &quot;_" however_RR &quot;_" creates_VVZ a_AT1 contrast_NN1 concerning_II the_AT idea_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 writer_NN1 foreseeing_VVG the_AT effect_NN1 on_II later_JJR audiences_NN2 something_PN1 which_DDQ pulls_VVZ the_AT essay_NN1 in_II a_AT1 different_JJ direction_NN1 from_II one_PN1 which_DDQ might_VM create_VVI the_AT expectation_NN1 that_CST Othello_NP1 would_VM be_VBI introduced_VVN ._. 
Alongside_II the_AT sorts_NN2 of_IO connective_NN1 listed_VVD above_RL ,_, other_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO link_NN1 can_VM also_RR be_VBI useful_JJ ._. 
Sometimes_RT a_AT1 DISJUNCT_JJ can_VM be_VBI used_VVN ,_, a_AT1 word_NN1 or_CC phrase_NN1 which_DDQ tells_VVZ your_APPGE reader_NN1 what_DDQ your_APPGE attitude_NN1 or_CC degree_NN1 of_IO commitment_NN1 is_VBZ towards_II the_AT material_NN1 you_PPY present_VV0 ._. 
Disjuncts_NP1 act_NN1 as_CSA ways_NN2 of_IO indicating_VVG your_APPGE evaluation_NN1 of_IO someone_PN1 else_RR 's_GE view_NN1 which_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR representing._NNU hearsay_NN1 disjuncts_VVZ :_: (_( allegedly_RR ,_, reportedly_RR ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) 
&quot;_" Reportedly_RR ,_, Yeats_NP1 was_VBDZ particularly_RR fond_JJ of_IO this_DD1 poem_NN1 ..._... &quot;_" evidential_JJ disjuncts_NN2 :_: (_( clearly_RR ,_, obviously_RR ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) 
&quot;_" Clearly_RR it_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI rash_JJ to_TO assume_VVI that_CST Shakespeare_NP1 knew_VVD of_IO this_DD1 earlier_JJR version_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Less_RGR common_JJ ,_, but_CCB sometimes_RT useful_JJ ,_, are_VBR :_: attitudinal_JJ disjuncts_NN2 :_: (_( unfortunately_RR ,_, sadly_RR ,_, luckily_RR ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) 
&quot;_" Sadly_RR ,_, this_DD1 was_VBDZ the_AT last_MD novel_NN1 Hardy_NP1 was_VBDZ to_TO write_VVI ..._... 
&quot;_" Note_VV0 ,_, however_RR ,_, that_DD1 attitudinal_JJ disjuncts_NN2 can_VM sometimes_RT have_VHI an_AT1 odd_JJ effect_NN1 on_II the_AT register_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 ,_, and_CC are_VBR therefore_RR less_RGR easily_RR incorporated_VVN ._. 
As_II31 well_II32 as_II33 holding_VVG your_APPGE text_NN1 together_RL ,_, cohesive_JJ markers_NN2 and_CC disjuncts_NN2 are_VBR tools_NN2 for_IF managing_VVG your_APPGE essay_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY need_VV0 to_TO stand_VVI back_RP from_II what_DDQ you_PPY write_VV0 and_CC explicitly_RR present_VV0 it_PPH1 to_II your_APPGE reader_NN1 ,_, commenting_VVG directly_RR on_II its_APPGE organisation_NN1 ,_, rather_CS21 than_CS22 just_RR on_II the_AT ideas_NN2 it_PPH1 contains_VVZ ._. 
By_II referring_VVG to_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 in_II this_DD1 way_NN1 ,_, you_PPY can_VM direct_VVI your_APPGE reader_NN1 to_II specific_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO it_PPH1 ,_, perhaps_RR for_IF emphasis_NN1 ;_; and_CC you_PPY can_VM comment_VVI on_II and_CC mediate_VVI your_APPGE material_NN1 ._. 
MEDIATION_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT process_NN1 of_IO acting_VVG as_II a_AT1 go-between_NN1 ,_, or_CC guide_NN1 ._. 
Mediating_VVG devices_NN2 include_VV0 phrases_NN2 like_VV0 ,_, &quot;_" as_CSA I_PPIS1 have_VH0 shown_VVN above_RL &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" so_RG far_RR I_PPIS1 have_VH0 tried_VVN to_TO argue_VVI that_DD1 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI helpful_JJ here_RL to_TO distinguish_VVI between_RL &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" in_II this_DD1 section_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" in_II my_APPGE introductory_JJ paragraph_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, etc_RA ._. 
They_PPHS2 also_RR include_VV0 brief_JJ summaries_NN2 of_IO what_DDQ has_VHZ gone_VVN before_RT ,_, or_CC even_RR direct_JJ repetition_NN1 of_IO key_JJ points_NN2 ,_, though_CS this_DD1 must_VM be_VBI clearly_RR for_IF the_AT benefit_NN1 of_IO the_AT reader_NN1 ,_, not_XX just_RR to_TO fill_VVI up_RP space_NN1 ._. 
Over-use_NN1 of_IO such_DA mediating_JJ devices_NN2 is_VBZ unwise_JJ ,_, especially_RR where_CS they_PPHS2 involve_VV0 direct_JJ repetition_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB in_II our_APPGE experience_NN1 ,_, this_DD1 kind_NN1 of_IO metacommentary_NN1 in_II essays_NN2 at_II all_DB levels_NN2 (_( from_II &quot;_" A_ZZ1 &quot;_" level_VV0 through_RP to_II PhD_NN1 writing_NN1 )_) tends_VVZ to_TO be_VBI under-used_VVN ;_; readers_NN2 are_VBR left_VVN to_TO infer_VVI connections_NN2 and_CC linkages_NN2 for_IF themselves_PPX2 ,_, and_CC the_AT effectiveness_NN1 of_IO sections_NN2 of_IO argument_NN1 is_VBZ as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 often_RR significantly_RR reduced_VVN ._. 
Generally_RR what_DDQ is_VBZ needed_VVN is_VBZ far_RG greater_JJR signalling_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ is_VBZ going_VVG on_RP in_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 ,_, and_CC more_RGR explicit_JJ management_NN1 of_IO the_AT material_NN1 presented._NNU 5.5_MC USING_VVG OTHER_JJ PEOPLE_NN 'S_GE WORDS_NN2 (_( QUOTATION_NN1 AND_CC PARAPHRASE_NP1 )_) In_II writing_VVG a_AT1 literary_JJ essay_NN1 ,_, you_PPY will_VM almost_RR certainly_RR at_II some_DD point_NN1 want_VV0 to_TO incorporate_VVI someone_PN1 else_RR 's_GE words_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX only_RR because_CS quotation_NN1 contributes_VVZ to_II an_AT1 appropriate_JJ &quot;_" literary_JJ critical_JJ &quot;_" register_NN1 (_( for_IF this_DD1 dubious_JJ reason_NN1 ,_, quotations_NN2 are_VBR often_RR believed_VVN to_TO be_VBI &quot;_" compulsory_JJ in_II essays_NN2 &quot;_" )_) ;_; it_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR because_CS your_APPGE essays_NN2 are_VBR largely_RR about_II language_NN1 (_( both_DB2 the_AT language_NN1 of_IO the_AT literary_JJ texts_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR analysing_VVG and_CC also_RR the_AT language_NN1 of_IO critical_JJ works_NN about_II them_PPHO2 )_) ,_, so_RR quotation_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT main_JJ way_NN1 of_IO presenting_VVG essential_JJ data_NN ._. 
You_PPY can_VM either_RR quote_VVI or_CC paraphrase_VVI literary_JJ texts_NN2 ;_; and_CC the_AT same_DA is_VBZ true_JJ of_IO critical_JJ analyses_NN2 ._. 
The_AT differences_NN2 between_II quotation_NN1 and_CC paraphrase_NN1 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN in_II the_AT following_JJ contrasting_JJ examples_NN2 :_: Quotation_NN1 &quot;_" One_MC1 of_IO the_AT most_RGT striking_JJ things_NN2 about_II detective_NN1 fiction_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, Patricia_NP1 Craig_NP1 argues_VVZ in_II her_APPGE critical_JJ introduction_NN1 to_II English_JJ detective_NN1 stories_NN2 ,_, &quot;_" is_VBZ the_AT ease_NN1 with_IW which_DDQ it_PPH1 accommodates_VVZ all_DB kinds_NN2 of_IO topical_JJ ideologies_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" Paraphrase_NP1 (_( or_CC summary_NN1 )_) It_PPH1 is_VBZ among_II the_AT most_RGT striking_JJ features_NN2 of_IO detective_NN1 fiction_NN1 ,_, Patricia_NP1 Craig_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP ,_, that_CST all_DB kinds_NN2 of_IO topical_JJ ideologies_NN2 are_VBR easily_RR accommodated_VVN within_II it_PPH1 ._. 
Mixture_NN1 of_IO paraphrase_NN1 and_CC quotation_NN1 One_MC1 of_IO the_AT most_RGT striking_JJ features_NN2 of_IO detective_NN1 fiction_NN1 ,_, as_CSA Patricia_NP1 Craig_NP1 points_VVZ out_RP ,_, is_VBZ the_AT way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 &quot;_" accommodates_VVZ all_DB kinds_NN2 of_IO topical_JJ ideologies_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
The_AT most_RGT obvious_JJ difference_NN1 between_II quotation_NN1 and_CC paraphrase_VV0 in_II these_DD2 examples_NN2 is_VBZ the_AT punctuation_NN1 which_DDQ separates_VVZ a_AT1 quotation_NN1 from_II the_AT surrounding_JJ material_NN1 ._. 
Notice_VV0 that_CST the_AT verbs_NN2 of_IO reporting_NN1 are_VBR shared_VVN :_: &quot;_" argues_VVZ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" suggests_VVZ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" points_VVZ out_RP &quot;_" ,_, etc._RA ,_, can_VM be_VBI used_VVN with_IW quotation_NN1 or_CC with_IW paraphrase_NN1 (_( though_CS only_RR in_II paraphrase_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT reporting_NN1 verb_NN1 phrase_NN1 commonly_RR preceded_VVN with_IW &quot;_" as_II &quot;_" and_CC followed_VVN by_II &quot;_" that_DD1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
A_AT1 paraphrase_NN1 usually_RR substantially_RR changes_VVZ the_AT language_NN1 of_IO the_AT original_JJ ,_, because_CS all_DB that_CST matters_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST the_AT idea_NN1 is_VBZ conveyed_VVN ._. 
Normally_RR you_PPY would_VM paraphrase_VVI rather_CS21 than_CS22 quote_VVI ,_, because_CS this_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO rewriting_VVG the_AT relevant_JJ material_NN1 in_II a_AT1 way_NN1 which_DDQ assimilates_VVZ it_PPH1 into_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 (_( rather_CS21 than_CS22 ,_, as_CSA with_IW a_AT1 quotation_NN1 ,_, leaving_VVG it_PPH1 sticking_VVG out_RP because_II21 of_II22 its_APPGE different_JJ style_NN1 )_) ._. 
But_CCB you_PPY should_VM use_VVI a_AT1 quotation_NN1 if_CS the_AT language_NN1 of_IO the_AT original_NN1 is_VBZ itself_PPX1 important_JJ ._. 
When_CS you_PPY put_VV0 a_AT1 quotation_NN1 in_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 you_PPY should_VM do_VDI several_DA2 things_NN2 with_IW it_PPH1 :_: Identify_VV0 where_RRQ the_AT quotation_NN1 comes_VVZ from_II ,_, e.g._REX the_AT author_NN1 and_CC work_VV0 :_: as_CSA Woolf_NP1 suggests_VVZ in_II The_AT Common_JJ Reader_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" &lsqb;_( QUOTE_NN1 &rsqb;_) &quot;_" ._. 
Early_RR in_II the_AT essay_NN1 ,_, Addison_NP1 refers_VVZ to_II this_DD1 phenomenon_NN1 as_CSA &quot;_" &lsqb;_( QUOTE_NN1 &rsqb;_) &quot;_" ._. 
Tell_VV0 the_AT reader_NN1 something_PN1 about_II the_AT context_NN1 from_II which_DDQ the_AT quotation_NN1 was_VBDZ taken_VVN ,_, to_TO indicate_VVI the_AT background_NN1 against_II which_DDQ the_AT quotation_NN1 is_VBZ being_VBG used_VVN ._. 
Sometimes_RT this_DD1 specification_NN1 of_IO context_NN1 will_VM be_VBI just_RR a_AT1 phrase_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 :_: In_II the_AT course_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 description_NN1 of_IO Henchard_NP1 late_RR in_II the_AT novel_NN1 ,_, Hardy_NP1 says_VVZ ,_, &quot;_" &lsqb;_( QUOTE_NN1 &rsqb;_) &quot;_" ._. 
Add_VV0 a_AT1 commentary_NN1 or_CC gloss_NN1 ,_, clarifying_VVG the_AT relevance_NN1 of_IO the_AT quotation_NN1 to_II your_APPGE argument_NN1 ._. 
Since_CS quoted_JJ material_NN1 can_VM be_VBI read_VVN in_II many_DA2 different_JJ ways_NN2 ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO ensure_VVI that_CST the_AT particular_JJ contribution_NN1 the_AT quotation_NN1 makes_VVZ to_II your_APPGE argument_NN1 is_VBZ made_VVN explicit_JJ ._. 
Take_VV0 special_JJ care_NN1 with_IW long_JJ quoted_JJ passages_NN2 (_( more_RRR than_CSN a_AT1 couple_NN1 of_IO sentences_NN2 or_CC more_DAR than_CSN a_AT1 few_DA2 lines_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 poem_NN1 )_) ,_, as_CSA a_AT1 lengthy_JJ quotation_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ not_XX then_RT followed_VVN by_II detailed_JJ analysis_NN1 and_CC discussion_NN1 is_VBZ probably_RR being_VBG used_VVN (_( illegitimately_RR )_) as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO replacing_VVG rather_II21 than_II22 supporting_VVG your_APPGE argument_NN1 ;_; you_PPY should_VM guide_VVI your_APPGE readers_NN2 through_II the_AT significance_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 selected_VVN for_IF their_APPGE attention_NN1 ._. 
Literary_JJ essays_NN2 typically_RR follow_VV0 a_AT1 simple_JJ set_NN1 of_IO conventions_NN2 governing_VVG the_AT presentation_NN1 of_IO quotations_NN2 ._. 
In_RR21 general_RR22 ,_, short_JJ quotations_NN2 in_II prose_NN1 (_( up_II21 to_II22 about_II forty_MC to_II fifty_MC words_NN2 )_) are_VBR incorporated_VVN in_II the_AT body_NN1 of_IO the_AT text_NN1 ,_, enclosed_VVN within_II single_JJ quotation_NN1 marks_NN2 ._. 
(_( Some_DD systems_NN2 recommend_VV0 double_JJ quotation_NN1 marks_NN2 ;_; either_DD1 will_VM be_VBI acceptable_JJ ,_, as_CS31 long_CS32 as_CS33 you_PPY are_VBR consistent_JJ ._. )_) 
Longer_JJR prose_NN1 quotations_NN2 are_VBR indented_VVN as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 by_II about_RG half_DB an_AT1 inch_NNU1 from_II the_AT left_JJ margin_NN1 of_IO the_AT rest_NN1 of_IO the_AT text_NN1 ,_, and_CC should_VM not_XX have_VHI quotation_NN1 marks_NN2 ._. 
Quotations_NN2 in_II verse_NN1 should_VM be_VBI indented_VVN ,_, like_II long_JJ quotations_NN2 ,_, and_CC laid_VVD out_RP as_RG closely_RR as_CSA possible_JJ to_II the_AT original_JJ ._. 
All_DB quoted_JJ material_NN1 should_VM follow_VVI the_AT spelling_NN1 and_CC punctuation_NN1 of_IO the_AT source_NN1 edition_NN1 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY omit_VV0 words_NN2 from_II a_AT1 quotation_NN1 ,_, indicate_VV0 the_AT omission_NN1 by_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO three_MC points_NN2 (_( ..._... )_) ,_, allowing_VVG a_AT1 blank_JJ space_NN1 on_II either_DD1 side_NN1 ._. 
(_( This_DD1 is_VBZ known_VVN as_II an_AT1 ELLIPSIS_NN1 ._. )_) 
Any_DD editorial_JJ insertions_NN2 you_PPY make_VV0 within_II a_AT1 quotation_NN1 should_VM be_VBI enclosed_VVN within_II square_JJ brackets_NN2 &lsqb;_( &rsqb;_) ,_, as_CSA in_II :_: This_DD1 tendency_NN1 for_IF the_AT image_NN1 of_IO war_NN1 to_TO be_VBI distorted_VVN &lsqb;_( my_APPGE italics_NN2 &rsqb;_) has_VHZ the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO ..._... encouraging_JJ unjustifiable_JJ patriotism._NNU 5.6_MC INDICATING_VVG WHERE_RRQ SOMEONE_PN1 ELSE_RR 'S_GE IDEAS_NN2 WORDS_NN2 COME_VV0 FROM_II When_RRQ you_PPY use_VV0 someone_PN1 else_RR 's_GE ideas_NN2 or_CC words_NN2 ,_, you_PPY need_VV0 to_TO say_VVI where_RRQ they_PPHS2 come_VV0 from_II ._. 
Traditionally_RR it_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT practice_NN1 to_TO provide_VVI a_AT1 footnote_NN1 for_IF every_AT1 reference_NN1 made_VVN in_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 ,_, whether_CSW for_IF a_AT1 quotation_NN1 or_CC for_IF a_AT1 paraphrase_NN1 ._. 
In_II many_DA2 cases_NN2 ,_, this_DD1 loads_VVZ down_RP an_AT1 essay_NN1 with_IW so_RG many_DA2 notes_NN2 that_CST it_PPH1 becomes_VVZ difficult_JJ to_TO read_VVI ._. 
For_IF this_DD1 reason_NN1 ,_, the_AT footnote-reference_JJ system_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN widely_RR displaced_VVN by_II other_JJ accepted_JJ techniques_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 the_AT system_NN1 which_DDQ we_PPIS2 now_RT describe_VV0 ,_, and_CC which_DDQ we_PPIS2 would_VM recommend_VVI ._. 
In_II the_AT Harvard_NP1 system_NN1 (_( often_RR referred_VVN to_II as_II the_AT &quot;_" authordate_NN1 &quot;_" style_NN1 )_) ,_, references_NN2 to_II a_AT1 particular_JJ work_NN1 are_VBR made_VVN in_II the_AT form_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 parenthesis_NN1 ,_, giving_VVG the_AT author_NN1 's_GE name_NN1 ,_, the_AT date_NN1 of_IO the_AT publication_NN1 referred_VVN to_II or_CC quoted_VVN from_II and_CC the_AT relevant_JJ page_NN1 number(s)_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 system_NN1 works_VVZ effectively_RR ,_, so_RG long_RR as_CSA the_AT work_NN1 in_II question_NN1 can_VM be_VBI clearly_RR identified_VVN in_II the_AT booklist_NN1 or_CC bibliography_NN1 attached_VVN to_II the_AT essay_NN1 or_CC dissertation_NN1 (_( for_IF details_NN2 ,_, see_VV0 below_RL ,_, Chapter_NN1 7_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 1345_MC )_) ._. 
Where_CS there_EX may_VM be_VBI ambiguity_NN1 ,_, because_CS two_MC works_NN exist_VV0 that_CST were_VBDR published_VVN by_II the_AT same_DA author_NN1 in_II the_AT same_DA year_NNT1 ,_, the_AT two_MC works_NN can_VM be_VBI labelled_VVN (_( a_ZZ1 )_) and_CC (_( b_ZZ1 )_) ,_, as_CSA in_II ,_, Kachru_NP1 1982(a)_FO and_CC Kachru_NP1 1982(b)_FO ._. 
Note_VV0 that_CST for_IF a_AT1 book_NN1 written_VVN by_II more_DAR than_CSN two_MC people_NN your_APPGE textual_JJ reference_NN1 can_VM normally_RR just_RR give_VVI the_AT first_MD of_IO the_AT names_NN2 ,_, followed_VVN by_II &quot;_" et_RA21 al_RA22 ._. 
&quot;_" to_TO stand_VVI for_IF the_AT other_JJ people_NN 's_GE names_NN2 ._. 
Here_RL are_VBR some_DD examples_NN2 of_IO typical_JJ references_NN2 that_CST might_VM occur_VVI in_II the_AT body_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 :_: (_( Belsey_NP1 1980_MC )_) (_( =_FO a_AT1 general_JJ reference_NN1 to_II the_AT whole_JJ work_NN1 )_) (_( Belsey_NP1 1980_MC ,_, 1721_MC )_) (_( =_FO a_AT1 reference_NN1 to_II pp._NNU2 1721_MC of_IO the_AT work_NN1 cited_VVN )_) (_( Sir_NNB Gawain_NP1 and_CC the_AT Green_JJ Knight_NP1 C14_FO )_) (_( =_FO a_AT1 reference_NN1 to_II an_AT1 anonymous_JJ work_NN1 ,_, for_IF which_DDQ the_AT title_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 an_AT1 author_NN1 is_VBZ given_VVN the_AT date_NN1 here_RL means_VVZ fourteenth_MD century_NNT1 ._. )_) 
Note_VV0 also_RR that_CST when_CS you_PPY cite_VV0 standard_JJ works_NN ,_, such_II21 as_II22 classical_JJ ,_, medieval_JJ ,_, scriptural_JJ or_CC liturgical_JJ works_NN ,_, references_NN2 should_VM follow_VVI the_AT numbered_JJ divisions_NN2 and_CC subdivisions_NN2 of_IO the_AT text_NN1 :_: Od_NP1 ,_, III_MC ,_, 28_MC =_FO Odyssey_NN1 ,_, Book_NN1 III_MC ,_, line_NN1 28_MC ._. 
What_DDQ we_PPIS2 have_VH0 been_VBN outlining_VVG here_RL is_VBZ a_AT1 simple_JJ version_NN1 of_IO the_AT Harvard_NP1 system_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" authordate_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
Other_JJ established_JJ systems_NN2 for_IF presenting_VVG references_NN2 include_VV0 the_AT Chicago_NP1 system_NN1 (_( the_AT style_NN1 of_IO the_AT Chicago_NP1 University_NN1 Press_NN1 )_) and_CC the_AT MHRA_NN1 system_NN1 (_( the_AT style_NN1 of_IO the_AT Modern_JJ Humanities_NN2 Research_VV0 Association_NN1 )_) ._. 
In_II quite_RG a_AT1 lot_NN1 of_IO professional_JJ academic_JJ writing_NN1 ,_, the_AT various_JJ systems_NN2 are_VBR mixed_VVN together_RL ,_, despite_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST most_DAT journals_NN2 seek_VV0 to_TO adopt_VVI a_AT1 consistent_JJ policy_NN1 and_CC insist_VVI on_II receiving_VVG manuscripts_NN2 which_DDQ follow_VV0 a_AT1 specified_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
In_II most_DAT work_VV0 you_PPY do_VD0 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX especially_RR important_JJ which_DDQ style_VV0 you_PPY use_VV0 (_( unless_CS you_PPY are_VBR required_VVN to_TO use_VVI a_AT1 particular_JJ system_NN1 by_II your_APPGE teacher_NN1 or_CC institution_NN1 )_) ._. 
What_DDQ matters_VVZ is_VBZ that_CST you_PPY are_VBR consistent_JJ ._. 
Although_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR important_JJ ,_, you_PPY should_VM not_XX let_VVI technicalities_NN2 in_II presenting_VVG references_NN2 divert_VV0 you_PPY away_II21 from_II22 the_AT crucial_JJ tasks_NN2 of_IO organising_VVG and_CC writing_VVG your_APPGE essay_NN1 ._. 
For_IF &quot;_" A_AT1 &quot;_" level_NN1 and_CC undergraduate_NN1 essays_NN2 ,_, in_II most_DAT cases_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ sufficient_JJ simply_RR to_TO underline_VVI titles_NN2 of_IO books_NN2 ,_, journals_NN2 and_CC long_JJ poems_NN2 ,_, and_CC to_TO enclose_VVI the_AT titles_NN2 of_IO articles_NN2 ,_, short_JJ stories_NN2 ,_, short_JJ poems_NN2 and_CC individual_JJ essays_NN2 in_II single_JJ inverted_JJ commas_NN2 ._. 
You_PPY should_VM identify_VVI sources_NN2 for_IF quotations_NN2 ,_, either_RR by_II the_AT &quot;_" authordate_NN1 &quot;_" system_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 suitable_JJ bibliography_NN1 or_CC by_II individual_JJ footnotes_NN2 ._. 
Bear_VV0 in_II mind_NN1 that_CST presentational_JJ matters_NN2 are_VBR for_IF the_AT convenience_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE reader_NN1 ,_, who_PNQS will_VM want_VVI to_TO be_VBI able_JK to_TO check_VVI easily_RR on_II the_AT materials_NN2 you_PPY have_VH0 used_VVN ._. 
In_II writing_VVG dissertations_NN2 and_CC postgraduate_NN1 theses_NN2 ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO explore_VVI and_CC follow_VVI established_JJ academic_JJ conventions_NN2 more_RGR fully_RR ._. 
Among_II the_AT best_JJT places_NN2 to_TO look_VVI for_IF guidance_NN1 are_VBR the_AT relevant_JJ manuals_NN2 themselves_PPX2 (_( see_VV0 our_APPGE Booklist_NN1 at_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 book_NN1 )_) ._. 
Differences_NN2 between_II the_AT three_MC main_JJ systems_NN2 in_II use_NN1 mainly_RR concern_VV0 punctuation_NN1 ,_, use_NN1 of_IO parentheses_NN2 and_CC the_AT order_NN1 of_IO elements_NN2 which_DDQ must_VM be_VBI cited_VVN ;_; but_CCB while_CS these_DD2 may_VM seem_VVI small_JJ discrepancies_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ one_MC1 part_NN1 of_IO the_AT process_NN1 of_IO research_NN1 to_TO assess_VVI at_II some_DD point_NN1 the_AT different_JJ conventions_NN2 governing_VVG the_AT listing_NN1 and_CC presentation_NN1 of_IO sources_NN2 ,_, and_CC to_TO present_VVI work_NN1 accurately_RR according_II21 to_II22 whatever_DDQV set_NN1 of_IO conventions_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR following._NNU 5.7_MC PLAGIARISM_NN1 Whether_CSW you_PPY quote_VV0 or_CC paraphrase_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ that_CST your_APPGE essay_NN1 distinguishes_VVZ clearly_RR between_II your_APPGE own_DA words_NN2 your_APPGE own_DA voice_NN1 ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 described_VVN it_PPH1 above_RL and_CC those_DD2 words_NN2 and_CC ideas_NN2 you_PPY are_VBR embedding_VVG in_II your_APPGE work_NN1 which_DDQ originate_VV0 elsewhere_RL ._. 
Failing_VVG to_TO make_VVI this_DD1 distinction_NN1 is_VBZ called_VVN PLAGIARISM_NP1 and_CC must_VM be_VBI avoided_VVN ._. 
Consider_VV0 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT following_JJ beginning_NN1 to_II an_AT1 essay_NN1 entitled_VVN &quot;_" Foregrounding_VVG in_II King_NNB Lear_NP1 &quot;_" :_: In_II its_APPGE most_RGT general_JJ interpretation_NN1 ,_, the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" style_NN1 &quot;_" has_VHZ a_AT1 fairly_RR uncontroversial_JJ meaning_NN1 :_: it_PPH1 refers_VVZ to_II the_AT way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ language_NN1 is_VBZ used_VVN in_II a_AT1 given_JJ context_NN1 ,_, by_II a_AT1 particular_JJ person_NN1 ,_, for_IF a_AT1 certain_JJ purpose_NN1 ._. 
To_TO make_VVI it_PPH1 clear_JJ I_PPIS1 have_VH0 to_TO adopt_VVI the_AT Swiss_JJ linguist_NN1 Saussure_NP1 's_GE theory_NN1 which_DDQ distinguishes_VVZ between_II &quot;_" langue_FW &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" parole_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
&quot;_" Langue_FW &quot;_" is_VBZ the_AT code_NN1 or_CC system_NN1 of_IO rules_NN2 common_JJ to_II speakers_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 language_NN1 like_II English_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Parole_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ the_AT particular_JJ uses_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 system_NN1 ,_, or_CC selections_NN2 from_II the_AT system_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ the_AT speaker_NN1 or_CC writer_NN1 makes_VVZ on_II this_DD1 or_CC that_DD1 occasion_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 two_MC aspects_NN2 lead_VV0 to_II defining_VVG stylistics_NN1 ,_, since_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT main_JJ concern_NN1 of_IO my_APPGE study_NN1 ,_, as_CSA follows_VVZ :_: Stylistics_NN1 ,_, as_CSA Leech_NP1 and_CC Short_NP1 point_VV0 out_RP (_( 1981_MC ,_, p._NN1 13_MC )_) ,_, can_VM be_VBI simply_RR defined_VVN as_II the_AT study_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 style_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ an_AT1 exercise_NN1 in_II describing_VVG what_DDQ use_VV0 is_VBZ made_VVN of_IO the_AT language_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 sentences_NN2 from_II a_AT1 student_NN1 essay_NN1 are_VBR almost_RR all_DB taken_VVN from_II Leech_NP1 and_CC Short_NP1 's_GE textbook_NN1 Style_NN1 in_II Fiction_NN1 (_( 1981_MC )_) ._. 
Because_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR copied_VVN from_II it_PPH1 directly_RR (_( with_IW only_JJ minor_JJ changes_NN2 )_) ,_, they_PPHS2 make_VV0 sense_NN1 as_CSA individual_JJ sentences_NN2 ;_; but_CCB they_PPHS2 do_VD0 not_XX connect_VVI together_RL ,_, because_CS they_PPHS2 come_VV0 from_II different_JJ places_NN2 in_II the_AT original_JJ book_NN1 ._. 
The_AT first_MD paragraph_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, comes_VVZ from_II p._NNU 10_MC and_CC the_AT second_NNT1 from_II p._NNU 13_MC ;_; and_CC all_DB the_AT connections_NN2 Leech_NN1 and_CC Short_NP1 make_VV0 between_II these_DD2 pages_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN lost_VVN ,_, with_IW the_AT result_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX clear_JJ how_RRQ the_AT first_MD paragraph_NN1 leads_VVZ to_II the_AT second_MD paragraph_NN1 ._. 
Moreover_RR ,_, because_CS the_AT textbook_NN1 had_VHD a_AT1 different_JJ purpose_NN1 from_II the_AT essay_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ n't_XX clear_JJ how_RRQ the_AT material_NN1 taken_VVN from_II the_AT textbook_NN1 is_VBZ relevant_JJ to_II the_AT essay_NN1 's_GE topic_NN1 of_IO foregrounding_VVG in_II King_NNB Lear_NP1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 general_JJ problem_NN1 with_IW copying_VVG or_CC paraphrasing_VVG other_JJ people_NN 's_GE work_NN1 :_: your_APPGE goals_NN2 are_VBR different_JJ from_II theirs_PPGE ,_, and_CC so_RR the_AT structure_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE argument_NN1 will_VM also_RR be_VBI different_JJ ._. 
The_AT words_NN2 of_IO someone_PN1 else_RR 's_GE arguments_NN2 are_VBR very_RG unlikely_JJ just_RR to_TO fit_VVI straight_RR into_II and_CC so_RR create_VV0 a_AT1 structure_NN1 and_CC argument_NN1 for_IF your_APPGE own_DA essay_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 related_JJ problem_NN1 with_IW copying_VVG other_JJ people_NN 's_GE arguments_NN2 can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN by_II comparing_VVG an_AT1 excerpt_NN1 from_II a_AT1 plagiarised_JJ text_NN1 (_( a_ZZ1 )_) with_IW the_AT essay_NN1 version_NN1 derived_VVN from_II it_PPH1 (_( b_ZZ1 )_) :_: (_( a_ZZ1 )_) Stylistics_NN1 ,_, simply_RR defined_VVN as_II the_AT (_( linguistic_JJ )_) study_NN1 of_IO style_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ rarely_RR undertaken_VVN for_IF its_APPGE own_DA sake_NN1 ,_, simply_RR as_II an_AT1 exercise_NN1 in_II describing_VVG what_DDQ use_VV0 is_VBZ made_VVN of_IO language._NNU (_( b_ZZ1 )_) Stylistics_NN1 ,_, as_CSA Leech_NP1 and_CC Short_NP1 point_VV0 out_RP (_( 1981_MC ,_, p.13_FO )_) ,_, can_VM be_VBI simply_RR defined_VVN as_II the_AT study_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 style_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ an_AT1 exercise_NN1 in_II describing_VVG what_DDQ use_VV0 is_VBZ made_VVN of_IO the_AT language_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 case_NN1 ,_, the_AT writer_NN1 's_GE revisions_NN2 have_VH0 turned_VVN the_AT meaning_NN1 of_IO the_AT original_JJ into_II its_APPGE opposite_JJ :_: the_AT original_JJ (_( a_ZZ1 )_) says_VVZ that_DD1 stylistics_NN1 is_VBZ rarely_RR an_AT1 exercise_NN1 in_II describing_VVG what_DDQ use_VV0 is_VBZ made_VVN of_IO language_NN1 ;_; but_CCB the_AT revision_NN1 (_( b_ZZ1 )_) says_VVZ that_DD1 stylistics_NN1 should_VM be_VBI defined_VVN as_II an_AT1 exercise_NN1 in_II describing_VVG what_DDQ use_VV0 is_VBZ made_VVN of_IO language_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 (_( almost_RR certainly_RR unintended_JJ )_) result_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 consequence_NN1 of_IO the_AT writer_NN1 relying_VVG on_II other_JJ people_NN to_TO state_VVI ideas_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 trying_VVG to_TO understand_VVI and_CC restate_VVI them_PPHO2 in_II her_PPHO1 or_CC his_APPGE own_DA voice_NN1 ._. 
In_RR21 general_RR22 ,_, if_CS you_PPY ca_VM n't_XX restate_VVI someone_PN1 else_RR 's_GE ideas_NN2 in_II your_APPGE own_DA words_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ likely_JJ that_CST you_PPY do_VD0 not_XX yet_RR understand_VVI them_PPHO2 sufficiently_RR to_TO be_VBI able_JK to_TO make_VVI appropriate_JJ use_NN1 of_IO them_PPHO2 ._. 
The_AT writer_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 extract_NN1 may_VM have_VHI felt_VVN that_CST she_PPHS1 or_CC he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ paraphrasing_VVG rather_II21 than_II22 plagiarising_VVG ,_, and_CC might_VM point_VVI to_II the_AT reference_NN1 made_VVN in_II the_AT extract_NN1 to_II Leech_NP1 and_CC Short_NP1 as_CSA evidence_NN1 that_CST she_PPHS1 or_CC he_PPHS1 was_VBDZ not_XX being_VBG dishonest_JJ ._. 
Nevertheless_RR ,_, the_AT rewritten_VVN version_NN1 conforms_VVZ so_RG closely_RR to_II the_AT original_JJ ,_, with_IW just_RR isolated_JJ words_NN2 changed_VVN ,_, that_CST it_PPH1 can_VM not_XX reasonably_RR be_VBI called_VVN a_AT1 paraphrase_NN1 ._. 
Either_RR no_AT words_NN2 should_VM have_VHI been_VBN changed_VVN and_CC the_AT original_NN1 should_VM have_VHI been_VBN presented_VVN as_II a_AT1 quotation_NN1 ,_, or_CC the_AT original_NN1 should_VM have_VHI been_VBN rewritten_VVN as_II a_AT1 paraphrase_NN1 (_( in_II both_DB2 cases_NN2 ,_, acknowledging_VVG that_CST the_AT whole_JJ passage_NN1 comes_VVZ from_II the_AT textbook_NN1 ,_, something_PN1 the_AT extract_NN1 above_RL from_II &quot;_" Foregrounding_VVG in_II King_NNB Lear_NP1 &quot;_" does_VDZ n't_XX do_VDI )_) ._. 
Plagiarism_NN1 often_RR arises_VVZ accidentally_RR ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, you_PPY may_VM have_VHI copied_VVN directly_RR from_II a_AT1 book_NN1 into_II your_APPGE notes_NN2 ,_, then_RT forgotten_VVN that_CST your_APPGE notes_NN2 are_VBR not_XX your_APPGE own_DA original_JJ work_NN1 ,_, and_CC so_RR incorporated_VVN them_PPHO2 directly_RR into_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 ._. 
And_CC plagiarism_NN1 is_VBZ often_RR the_AT result_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 admiration_NN1 for_IF the_AT wording_NN1 of_IO the_AT original_JJ a_AT1 feeling_NN1 that_CST such_DA ideas_NN2 could_VM not_XX be_VBI put_VVN better_RRR ._. 
But_CCB if_CS you_PPY really_RR feel_VV0 this_DD1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ usually_RR appropriate_JJ to_TO quote_VVI the_AT original_JJ ,_, rather_CS21 than_CS22 incorporate_VVI its_APPGE words_NN2 into_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 as_CS21 though_CS22 they_PPHS2 are_VBR your_APPGE own._DA 5.8_MC SUMMARY_NN1 ,_, SUGGESTIONS_NN2 AND_CC EXERCISES_VVZ Summary_NN1 In_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 have_VH0 shown_VVN how_RRQ you_PPY can_VM overcome_VVI many_DA2 of_IO the_AT local_JJ difficulties_NN2 of_IO putting_VVG the_AT words_NN2 and_CC sentences_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 together_RL ,_, including_II the_AT special_JJ difficulties_NN2 presented_VVN by_II the_AT opening_NN1 and_CC closing_JJ passages_NN2 ._. 
We_PPIS2 have_VH0 suggested_VVN techniques_NN2 for_IF creating_VVG continuity_NN1 through_II the_AT different_JJ sections_NN2 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 ,_, by_II linking_VVG together_RL and_CC signposting_VVG for_IF a_AT1 reader_NN1 the_AT various_JJ points_NN2 you_PPY make_VV0 ._. 
Signposting_NP1 is_VBZ important_JJ in_II many_DA2 aspects_NN2 of_IO essay-writing_NN1 :_: in_II showing_VVG your_APPGE reader_NN1 where_CS you_PPY have_VH0 got_VVN to_TO ,_, how_RRQ your_APPGE paragraphs_NN2 connect_VV0 together_RL and_CC which_DDQ words_NN2 are_VBR your_APPGE own_DA and_CC which_DDQ are_VBR quoted_VVN ._. 
Specific_JJ suggestions_NN2 *_FU Take_VV0 special_JJ care_NN1 with_IW your_APPGE first_MD paragraph_NN1 ._. 
Tell_VV0 your_APPGE reader_NN1 what_DDQ questions_VVZ you_PPY are_VBR going_VVGK to_TO answer_VVI and_CC do_VDI n't_XX make_VVI promises_NN2 you_PPY ca_VM n't_XX keep_VVI (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 924_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Take_VV0 special_JJ care_NN1 with_IW your_APPGE last_MD paragraph_NN1 ._. 
Use_VV0 it_PPH1 as_II a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO bringing_VVG the_AT argument_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 to_II a_AT1 conclusion_NN1 ._. 
Read_VV0 the_AT first_MD paragraph_NN1 again_RT ,_, but_CCB do_VD0 n't_XX copy_VVI it_PPH1 into_II your_APPGE last_MD paragraph_NN1 ._. 
Do_VD0 n't_XX be_VBI grandiose_JJ ,_, banal_JJ or_CC over-personal_JJ ,_, and_CC do_VD0 n't_XX normally_RR end_VVI with_IW a_AT1 quotation_NN1 from_II someone_PN1 else_RR (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 957_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Use_NN1 topic_NN1 sentences_NN2 at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 (_( and_CC sometimes_RT also_RR at_II the_AT end_NN1 )_) of_IO paragraphs_NN2 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 99_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Divide_NN1 your_APPGE essay_NN1 into_II sections_NN2 ,_, but_CCB do_VD0 n't_XX make_VVI the_AT sections_NN2 too_RG small_JJ (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 100_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Use_NN1 cohesive_JJ markers_NN2 ,_, but_CCB do_VD0 n't_XX expect_VVI them_PPHO2 to_TO create_VVI connections_NN2 between_II unconnectable_JJ material_NN1 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 1004_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Get_VV0 into_II the_AT habit_NN1 of_IO standing_VVG back_RP from_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 you_PPY can_VM comment_VVI on_II it_PPH1 for_IF the_AT benefit_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE reader_NN1 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 104_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Avoid_VV0 using_VVG long_JJ quotations_NN2 unless_CS really_RR necessary_JJ (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 106_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Say_VV0 where_RRQ quotations_NN2 come_VV0 from_II and_CC explain_VV0 what_DDQ they_PPHS2 are_VBR doing_VDG in_II your_APPGE essay_NN1 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 1078_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Either_RR rewrite_VV0 thoroughly_RR or_CC quote_VV0 exactly_RR :_: in_RL21 between_RL22 ,_, you_PPY are_VBR in_II danger_NN1 of_IO plagiarism_NN1 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 10910_MC )_) ._. 
Exercises_NN2 (_( 1_MC1 )_) The_AT following_JJ is_VBZ a_AT1 quotation_NN1 from_II a_AT1 book_NN1 by_II Christopher_NP1 Norris_NP1 called_VVD Deconstruction_NP1 :_: Theory_NN1 and_CC Practice_NN1 (_( first_MD published_VVN by_II Methuen_NP1 ,_, in_II London_NP1 ,_, in_II 1982_MC )_) ._. 
To_TO present_VVI &quot;_" deconstruction_NN1 &quot;_" as_CS21 if_CS22 it_PPH1 were_VBDR a_AT1 method_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 system_NN1 or_CC a_AT1 settled_JJ body_NN1 of_IO ideas_NN2 would_VM be_VBI to_TO falsify_VVI its_APPGE nature_NN1 and_CC lay_VVD oneself_PNX1 open_VV0 to_II charges_NN2 of_IO reductive_JJ misunderstanding_NN1 ._. 
Imagine_VV0 that_CST you_PPY are_VBR writing_VVG an_AT1 essay_NN1 ,_, and_CC want_VV0 to_TO refer_VVI to_II what_DDQ Norris_NP1 says_VVZ about_II deconstruction_NN1 ._. 
Write_VV0 out_RP a_AT1 version_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 quotation_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ a_AT1 paraphrase_NN1 ,_, and_CC another_DD1 version_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ a_AT1 mixture_NN1 of_IO paraphrase_NN1 and_CC quotation._NNU (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 105_MC )_) ._. 
Make_VV0 sure_JJ that_CST your_APPGE text_NN1 makes_VVZ it_PPH1 clear_JJ where_CS the_AT quotation_NN1 comes_VVZ from_II (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 1078_MC )_) ._. 
(_( 2_MC )_) The_AT following_JJ passage_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 exam_NN1 essay_NN1 on_II the_AT development_NN1 of_IO the_AT modern_JJ novel_NN1 ._. 
Drawing_VVG on_II our_APPGE discussion_NN1 of_IO paragraph_NN1 organisation_NN1 in_RR21 general_RR22 ,_, and_CC opening_VVG paragraphs_NN2 in_RR21 particular_RR22 (_( pp._NNU2 924_MC )_) ,_, revise_VV0 the_AT passage_NN1 in_II ways_NN2 that_CST present_NN1 to_II best_JJT effect_NN1 its_APPGE main_JJ points_NN2 ._. 
As_CSA you_PPY do_VD0 so_RR ,_, try_VV0 as_RG far_RR as_CSA possible_JJ to_TO keep_VVI to_II the_AT basic_JJ sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT passage_NN1 ._. 
The_AT traditional_JJ novel_JJ writers_NN2 like_II Jane_NP1 Austen_NP1 are_VBR essentially_RR objective_JJ and_CC descriptive_JJ ,_, Jane_NP1 Austen_NP1 for_REX21 example_REX22 describes_VVZ events_NN2 and_CC people_NN in_II a_AT1 basic_JJ narrative_JJ style_NN1 ,_, she_PPHS1 has_VHZ very_RG little_DA1 involvement_NN1 with_IW any_DD kind_NN1 of_IO thought_NN1 life_NN1 ;_; the_AT actions_NN2 made_VVN dictate_VVI the_AT novel_NN1 almost_RR completely_RR ._. 
Conrad_NP1 's_GE Heart_NN1 of_IO Darkness_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT first_MD English_JJ modernist_JJ novel_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ written_VVN at_II the_AT break_NN1 of_IO the_AT century_NNT1 ,_, a_AT1 time_NNT1 of_IO great_JJ change_NN1 and_CC movement_NN1 (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, electricity_NN1 ,_, airplanes_NN2 ,_, telephone_NN1 were_VBDR all_DB invented_VVD ,_, democracy_NN1 and_CC freud_NN1 emerged_VVD ._. )_) 
Writers_NN2 at_II this_DD1 time_NNT1 were_VBDR exploring_VVG the_AT new_JJ social_JJ and_CC material_NN1 world_NN1 in_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 lived_VVD ._. 
The_AT fundamental_JJ difference_NN1 between_II the_AT traditional_JJ novel_NN1 and_CC this_DD1 the_AT new_JJ novel_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST now_RT the_AT style_NN1 is_VBZ analytical_JJ and_CC psychological_JJ ._. 
Novels_NN2 involve_VV0 thoughtlifes_NN2 and_CC motives_NN2 ,_, feelings_NN2 and_CC attitudes_NN2 ._. 
T.S.Eliot_NP1 for_REX21 example_REX22 wrote_VVD a_AT1 series_NN of_IO poems_NN2 about_II the_AT disillusionment_NN1 of_IO modern_JJ life_NN1 ,_, these_DD2 poems_NN2 are_VBR a_AT1 comment_NN1 on_II the_AT repition_NN1 of_IO day_NNT1 to_II day_NNT1 life_NN1 in_II the_AT city_NN1 ._. 
Grammar_NN1 ,_, punctuation_NN1 and_CC spelling_VVG You_PPY may_VM have_VHI learned_VVN English_NN1 as_II a_AT1 child_NN1 or_CC as_II an_AT1 adult_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB no_RGQV31 matter_RGQV32 how_RGQV33 fluently_RR you_PPY speak_VV0 English_JJ you_PPY are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO have_VHI at_RR21 least_RR22 some_DD problems_NN2 when_CS you_PPY write_VV0 it_PPH1 ._. 
This_DD1 chapter_NN1 is_VBZ about_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO the_AT problems_NN2 you_PPY may_VM face_VVI in_II writing_VVG words_NN2 (_( e.g._REX spelling_NN1 )_) and_CC in_II writing_VVG sentences_NN2 (_( e.g._REX punctuation_NN1 and_CC &quot;_" grammar_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
This_DD1 chapter_NN1 comes_VVZ after_II the_AT chapter_NN1 on_II writing_VVG the_AT essay_NN1 because_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI most_RGT useful_JJ to_II you_PPY when_CS you_PPY come_VV0 to_TO re-read_VVI and_CC correct_VVI what_DDQ you_PPY have_VH0 written._NNU 6.1_MC MISTAKES_NN2 AND_CC VARIATION_NN1 Different_JJ users_NN2 of_IO English_NN1 speak_VV0 and_CC write_VV0 English_NN1 differently_RR ._. 
Whereas_CS Scots_NN2 generally_RR write_VV0 &quot;_" colour_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC Australians_NN2 write_VV0 &quot;_" I_PPIS1 know_VV0 the_AT answer_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, Americans_NN2 generally_RR write_VV0 &quot;_" color_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC Indians_NN2 in_II many_DA2 circumstances_NN2 write_VV0 &quot;_" I_PPIS1 am_VBM knowing_VVG the_AT answer_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
No_PN121 one_PN122 owns_VVZ English_NN1 ,_, and_CC no_PN121 one_PN122 has_VHZ a_AT1 natural_JJ right_NN1 to_TO tell_VVI other_JJ English_JJ speakers_NN2 how_RRQ to_TO use_VVI it_PPH1 ._. 
When_RRQ people_NN publish_VV0 prescriptive_JJ grammar_NN1 books_NN2 ,_, or_CC dictionaries_NN2 which_DDQ tell_VV0 you_PPY how_RRQ to_TO spell_VVI words_NN2 or_CC style_NN1 manuals_NN2 which_DDQ tell_VVI you_PPY how_RRQ to_TO punctuate_VVI ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR either_RR making_VVG their_APPGE own_DA choice_NN1 between_II different_JJ possible_JJ (_( in_II many_DA2 cases_NN2 ,_, arbitrary_JJ )_) rules_NN2 or_CC conforming_VVG to_II rules_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 been_VBN selected_VVN at_II some_DD point_NN1 by_II others_NN2 from_II a_AT1 range_NN1 of_IO possibilities_NN2 and_CC passed_VVD down_RP through_II history_NN1 ._. 
Of_RR21 course_RR22 ,_, just_RR because_CS a_AT1 rule_NN1 could_VM have_VHI been_VBN different_JJ does_VDZ n't_XX mean_VVI that_CST you_PPY should_VM ignore_VVI it_PPH1 ._. 
If_CS you_PPY ignore_VV0 the_AT rule_NN1 which_DDQ tells_VVZ you_PPY to_TO drive_VVI down_RP the_AT left-_JJ hand_NN1 side_NN1 of_IO the_AT road_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 you_PPY may_VM crash_VVI your_APPGE car_NN1 ._. 
Similarly_RR ,_, you_PPY can_VM &quot;_" crash_VV0 &quot;_" your_APPGE essay_NN1 by_II breaking_VVG the_AT most_RGT influential_JJ though_CS finally_RR arbitrary_JJ ,_, simply_RR conventional_JJ rules_NN2 of_IO writing_NN1 ._. 
Here_RL is_VBZ an_AT1 example_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD people_NN write_VV0 &quot;_" it_PPH1 's_VBZ cover_NN1 &quot;_" (_( as_CSA in_II &quot;_" the_AT book_NN1 has_VHZ on_II it_PPH1 's_VBZ cover_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ,_, with_IW possessive_JJ &quot;_" it_PPH1 &quot;_" followed_VVD by_II apostrophe_NN1 and_CC &quot;_" s_ZZ1 &quot;_" ._. 
Books_NN2 which_DDQ give_VV0 rules_NN2 of_IO punctuation_NN1 will_VM tell_VVI you_PPY that_CST this_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 mistake_NN1 ._. 
Possessive_JJ &quot;_" its_APPGE &quot;_" should_VM be_VBI written_VVN without_IW an_AT1 apostrophe_NN1 ,_, just_RR as_RG possessive_JJ &quot;_" his_PPGE &quot;_" is_VBZ written_VVN without_IW an_AT1 apostrophe_NN1 ;_; only_RR the_AT &quot;_" it_PPH1 's_VBZ &quot;_" which_DDQ means_VVZ &quot;_" it_PPH1 is_VBZ &quot;_" should_VM be_VBI written_VVN with_IW an_AT1 apostrophe_NN1 ._. 
Should_VM you_PPY follow_VVI this_DD1 rule_NN1 or_CC not_XX ?_? 
It_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI possible_JJ to_TO argue_VVI that_CST &quot;_" it_PPH1 's_VBZ cover_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ just_RR a_AT1 different_JJ convention_NN1 of_IO punctuation_NN1 ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 a_AT1 mistake_NN1 ._. 
Perhaps_RR it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX in_II the_AT grammar_NN1 books_NN2 because_CS the_AT grammar_NN1 books_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX reflect_VVI how_RRQ people_NN actually_RR use_VV0 language_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM accordingly_RR make_VVI a_AT1 decision_NN1 about_II using_VVG it_PPH1 's_VBZ or_CC its_APPGE on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY gain_VV0 and_CC what_DDQ you_PPY lose_VV0 ._. 
Using_VVG a_AT1 variation_NN1 (_( possessive_JJ it_PPH1 's_VBZ )_) means_VVZ that_CST you_PPY are_VBR asserting_VVG your_APPGE right_NN1 to_II your_APPGE own_DA language_NN1 ;_; but_CCB you_PPY may_VM well_RR also_RR alienate_VVI your_APPGE reader_NN1 ,_, who_PNQS might_VM decide_VVI that_DD1 ,_, at_RR21 least_RR22 in_II her_PPHO1 or_CC his_APPGE view_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" you_PPY ca_VM n't_XX write_VVI properly_RR &quot;_" ._. 
The_AT variation_NN1 might_VM help_VVI your_APPGE reader_NN1 understand_VV0 you_PPY and_CC your_APPGE writing_NN1 ,_, or_CC it_PPH1 might_VM hinder_VVI understanding_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY write_VV0 ._. 
In_II the_AT end_NN1 ,_, you_PPY have_VH0 to_TO make_VVI your_APPGE own_DA decision_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ useful_JJ to_TO know_VVI what_DDQ the_AT conventional_JJ rules_NN2 are_VBR ,_, and_CC also_RR to_TO bear_VVI in_II mind_NN1 who_PNQS you_PPY are_VBR writing_VVG for_IF ._. 
The_AT relationship_NN1 between_II you_PPY and_CC your_APPGE reader(s)_NN2 ,_, especially_RR in_II academic_JJ courses_NN2 ,_, is_VBZ not_XX generally_RR an_AT1 equal_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
So_RR this_DD1 is_VBZ one_MC1 further_JJR factor_NN1 to_TO consider_VVI as_CSA you_PPY weigh_VV0 up_RP the_AT alternatives_NN2 ._. 
One_MC1 solution_NN1 to_II the_AT problem_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO think_VVI of_IO the_AT prescribed_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO standard_JJ written_JJ English_NN1 as_II a_AT1 sort_NN1 of_IO register_NN1 :_: a_AT1 variety_NN1 to_TO be_VBI used_VVN for_IF specific_JJ purposes_NN2 (_( including_II writing_VVG coursework_NN1 essays_NN2 and_CC exam_NN1 answers_VVZ )_) which_DDQ nevertheless_RR may_VM not_XX be_VBI a_AT1 variety_NN1 that_CST you_PPY identify_VV0 much_RR with_IW ,_, by_II comparison_NN1 with_IW the_AT usage_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE family_NN1 and_CC friends_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT rest_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 chapter_NN1 we_PPIS2 discuss_VV0 some_DD common_JJ errors_NN2 (_( or_CC variations_NN2 )_) in_II spelling_NN1 ,_, grammar_NN1 and_CC punctuation_NN1 ._. 
(_( Note_VV0 that_CST we_PPIS2 consider_VV0 the_AT related_JJ issues_NN2 of_IO the_AT role_NN1 of_IO active_JJ and_CC passive_JJ grammatical_JJ constructions_NN2 in_II writing_VVG style_NN1 elsewhere_RL ,_, in_II Chapter_NN1 4_MC ,_, pp._NNU2 834_MC ,_, and_CC the_AT use_NN1 of_IO inverted_JJ commas_NN2 round_II quotations_NN2 in_II Chapter_NN1 5_MC ,_, p._NN1 106._MC )_) 6.2_MC SPELLING_NN1 AND_CC HOW_RRQ WORDS_NN2 ARE_VBR PUT_VVN TOGETHER_RL A_ZZ1 written_JJ word_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 combination_NN1 of_IO letters_NN2 ,_, while_CS a_AT1 spoken_JJ word_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 combination_NN1 of_IO sounds_NN2 ._. 
Letters_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX correspond_VVI exactly_RR to_II sounds_NN2 ,_, with_IW the_AT consequence_NN1 that_CST knowing_VVG how_RRQ to_TO pronounce_VVI a_AT1 word_NN1 does_VDZ n't_XX necessarily_RR mean_VVI you_PPY know_VV0 how_RRQ to_TO spell_VVI it_PPH1 (_( and_CC vice_RR21 versa_RR22 )_) ._. 
This_DD1 mismatch_NN1 between_II speaking_VVG and_CC spelling_NN1 leads_VVZ to_II SPELLING_VVG MISTAKES_NN2 ._. 
Spelling_VVG mistakes_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX usually_RR stop_VVI your_APPGE writing_NN1 being_VBG understood_VVN ,_, but_CCB in_II many_DA2 contexts_NN2 they_PPHS2 carry_VV0 undesirable_JJ connotations_NN2 which_DDQ you_PPY may_VM wish_VVI to_TO avoid_VVI (_( &quot;_" does_VDZ n't_XX read_VVI &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" illiterate_JJ &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" badly_RR taught_VVN &quot;_" ,_, etc_RA ._. )_) ._. 
Like_II any_DD rules_NN2 ,_, spelling_VVG rules_NN2 can_VM be_VBI broken_VVN for_IF particular_JJ effect_NN1 ,_, as_CSA in_II the_AT poet_NN1 Ezra_NP1 Pound_NP1 's_GE dismissive_JJ spelling_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" culture_NN1 &quot;_" as_CSA &quot;_" kulchur_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, or_CC the_AT hostile_JJ spelling_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" America_NP1 &quot;_" as_CSA &quot;_" Amerika_NP1 &quot;_" ._. 
Some_DD of_IO the_AT differences_NN2 between_II letters_NN2 and_CC sounds_NN2 are_VBR :_: the_AT letters_NN2 are_VBR the_AT same_DA wherever_RRQV English_NN1 is_VBZ used_VVN ,_, but_CCB the_AT sounds_NN2 of_IO English_NN1 (_( particularly_RR vowel_NN1 sounds_VVZ )_) change_VV0 dramatically_RR from_II region_NN1 to_II region_NN1 ;_; there_EX are_VBR far_RR fewer_DAR letters_NN2 than_CSN sounds_NN2 ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT five_MC written_JJ vowels_NN2 have_VH0 to_TO stand_VVI for_IF two_MC to_II three_MC times_NNT2 as_RG many_DA2 spoken_JJ vowels_NN2 ;_; two_MC letters_NN2 can_VM stand_VVI for_IF one_MC1 sound_NN1 (_( the_AT letter-pair_JJ &quot;_" sh_UH &quot;_" stands_NN2 for_IF a_AT1 single_JJ sound_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC one_MC1 letter_NN1 can_VM stand_VVI for_IF a_AT1 sequence_NN1 of_IO two_MC sounds_NN2 (_( in_II our_APPGE dialect_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" o_ZZ1 &quot;_" in_II the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" no_AT &quot;_" stands_NN2 for_IF two_MC sounds_NN2 in_II sequence_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 vowel_NN1 first_MD ,_, followed_VVN by_II a_AT1 &quot;_" w_ZZ1 &quot;_" sound_NN1 made_VVN with_IW the_AT lips_NN2 )_) ;_; the_AT spelling_NN1 of_IO English_NN1 was_VBDZ more_RGR or_CC less_RGR fixed_JJ several_DA2 hundred_NNO years_NNT2 ago_RA ;_; but_CCB the_AT pronunciation_NN1 keeps_VVZ changing_JJ ,_, so_CS21 that_CS22 even_RR where_CS a_AT1 letter_NN1 once_RR corresponded_VVN more_RRR or_CC less_RRR to_II a_AT1 sound_NN1 ,_, now_RT it_PPH1 may_VM not_XX ;_; there_EX are_VBR (_( often_RR rather_RG obscure_JJ )_) conventions_NN2 which_DDQ have_VH0 been_VBN adopted_VVN about_II spelling_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI learned_VVN ._. 
One_MC1 example_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT rule_NN1 &quot;_" i_ZZ1 before_CS e_ZZ1 except_CS after_CS c_ZZ1 &quot;_" (_( hence_RR &quot;_" believe_VV0 &quot;_" not_XX &quot;_" beleive_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, but_CCB &quot;_" conceive_VV0 &quot;_" not_XX &quot;_" concieve_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
Understanding_VVG general_JJ differences_NN2 between_II spelling_NN1 and_CC speaking_VVG may_VM help_VVI you_PPY to_TO improve_VVI your_APPGE own_DA spelling_NN1 ,_, and_CC may_VM make_VVI it_PPH1 more_RGR interesting_JJ to_TO focus_VVI on_II spelling_VVG as_II an_AT1 issue_NN1 in_II your_APPGE writing_NN1 ._. 
And_CC there_EX is_VBZ another_DD1 aspect_NN1 of_IO the_AT construction_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 word_NN1 which_DDQ it_PPH1 may_VM also_RR be_VBI helpful_JJ to_TO know_VVI something_PN1 about_II :_: that_CST some_DD (_( particularly_RR longer_RRR )_) words_NN2 are_VBR built_VVN out_II21 of_II22 other_JJ words_NN2 ,_, by_II adding_VVG prefixes_NN2 at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 or_CC suffixes_NN2 at_II the_AT end_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 simple_JJ example_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 relates_VVZ to_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" s_ZZ1 ,_, discussed_VVN in_II the_AT previous_JJ section_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ an_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 SUFFIX_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ enables_VVZ you_PPY to_TO take_VVI a_AT1 word_NN1 and_CC build_VVI another_DD1 word_NN1 from_II it_PPH1 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM take_VVI the_AT noun_NN1 John_NP1 ,_, then_RT add_VV0 &quot;_" s_ZZ1 and_CC make_VV0 a_AT1 new_JJ word_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" John_NP1 's_GE &quot;_" ,_, meaning_VVG &quot;_" belonging_VVG to_II John_NP1 &quot;_" ._. 
(_( With_IW nouns_NN2 in_II the_AT plural_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 students_NN2 ,_, the_AT convention_NN1 is_VBZ simply_RR to_TO add_VVI an_AT1 apostrophe_NN1 ,_, as_CSA in_II &quot;_" the_AT students_NN2 '_GE books_NN2 &quot;_" ;_; with_IW names_NN2 already_RR ending_VVG in_II &quot;_" s_ZZ1 &quot;_" ,_, apostrophe_VV0 &quot;_" s_ZZ1 &quot;_" is_VBZ still_RR generally_RR added_VVN so_RR Keats_NP1 's_GE ,_, rather_II21 than_II22 Keats_NP1 '_GE ,_, though_CS the_AT apostrophe_NN1 without_IW an_AT1 additional_JJ &quot;_" s_ZZ1 &quot;_" is_VBZ nearly_RR always_RR used_VVN for_IF ancient_JJ classical_JJ names_NN2 ,_, as_CSA in_II Augustus_NP1 '_GE ._. )_) 
What_DDQ is_VBZ interesting_JJ here_RL ,_, however_RR ,_, is_VBZ that_CST the_AT word_NN1 its_APPGE (_( the_AT possessive_JJ pronoun_NN1 ,_, meaning_VVG &quot;_" belonging_VVG to_II it_PPH1 &quot;_" )_) is_VBZ not_XX built_VVN by_II taking_VVG it_PPH1 and_CC adding_VVG 's_VBZ to_II it_PPH1 ._. 
Instead_RR (_( and_CC this_DD1 runs_VVZ against_II our_APPGE intuitions_NN2 ,_, hence_RR the_AT likelihood_NN1 of_IO mistakes_NN2 in_II this_DD1 area_NN1 )_) ,_, its_APPGE is_VBZ a_AT1 single_JJ ,_, complete_JJ word_NN1 which_DDQ does_VDZ not_XX contain_VVI a_AT1 suffix_NN1 ._. 
So_RR it_PPH1 is_VBZ worth_II remembering_VVG that_CST there_EX is_VBZ another_DD1 ,_, different_JJ suffix_NN1 ,_, s_ZZ1 ,_, which_DDQ expresses_VVZ plural_JJ and_CC which_DDQ does_VDZ not_XX have_VHI an_AT1 apostrophe_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM take_VVI poem_NN1 ,_, add_VV0 s_ZZ1 ,_, and_CC get_VV0 the_AT plural_JJ poems_NN2 ;_; poem_NN1 's_GE is_VBZ accordingly_RR an_AT1 incorrect_JJ way_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG the_AT plural_NN1 of_IO poem_NN1 because_CS you_PPY have_VH0 used_VVN the_AT wrong_JJ suffix_NN1 ._. 
(_( Use_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" s_ZZ1 to_TO indicate_VVI plurals_NN2 is_VBZ a_AT1 very_RG common_JJ error_NN1 in_II essays_NN2 ,_, especially_RR with_IW dates_NN2 :_: so_RR ,_, the_AT 1920s_MC2 ,_, not_XX the_AT 1920_MC 's_GE ._. )_) 
Thinking_VVG about_II the_AT way_NN1 a_AT1 word_NN1 is_VBZ put_VVN together_RL can_VM sometimes_RT help_VVI you_PPY to_TO remember_VVI how_RRQ to_TO spell_VVI it_PPH1 ._. 
You_PPY can_VM remember_VVI how_RRQ to_TO spell_VVI &quot;_" repetition_NN1 &quot;_" (_( not_XX &quot;_" repitition_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, by_II remembering_VVG the_AT related_JJ word_NN1 &quot;_" repeat_VV0 &quot;_" which_DDQ has_VHZ &quot;_" e_ZZ1 &quot;_" ;_; &quot;_" repetition_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ made_VVN by_II adding_VVG the_AT suffix_NN1 &quot;_" ition_NN1 &quot;_" to_TO &quot;_" repeat_VVI &quot;_" (_( and_CC then_RT cutting_VVG out_RP the_AT &quot;_" a_AT1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
Even_RR the_AT notorious_JJ &quot;_" one_MC1 consonant_NN1 or_CC two_MC ?_? &quot;_" problem_NN1 can_VM sometimes_RT be_VBI solved_VVN this_DD1 way_NN1 :_: &quot;_" reccommend_VV0 &quot;_" can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN to_TO be_VBI the_AT wrong_JJ spelling_NN1 because_CS the_AT word_NN1 is_VBZ made_VVN by_II adding_VVG the_AT prefix_NN1 &quot;_" re_II &quot;_" to_II the_AT word_NN1 &quot;_" commend_VV0 &quot;_" ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ even_RR possible_JJ to_TO use_VVI this_DD1 method_NN1 when_CS there_EX is_VBZ no_AT suffix_NN1 involved_VVN :_: you_PPY can_VM remember_VVI how_RRQ to_TO spell_VVI &quot;_" separate_JJ &quot;_" (_( not_XX &quot;_" seperate_JJ &quot;_" )_) by_II linking_VVG it_PPH1 with_IW the_AT loosely_RR related_JJ word_NN1 &quot;_" pair_NN &quot;_" ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ often_RR possible_JJ ,_, then_RT ,_, to_TO understand_VVI and_CC so_RR overcome_VVI spelling_VVG errors_NN2 ,_, once_CS you_PPY understand_VV0 why_RRQ you_PPY are_VBR making_VVG an_AT1 error_NN1 and_CC can_VM work_VVI out_RP a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO reminding_VVG yourself_PPX1 of_IO the_AT correct_JJ form_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, if_CS you_PPY spell_VV0 &quot;_" existence_NN1 &quot;_" as_II the_AT incorrect_JJ &quot;_" existance_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, you_PPY could_VM try_VVI to_TO understand_VVI why_RRQ in_II this_DD1 case_NN1 ,_, because_CS there_EX are_VBR two_MC suffixes_NN2 ,_, one_MC1 &quot;_" -ence_NN1 &quot;_" and_CC another_DD1 &quot;_" -ance_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, and_CC you_PPY have_VH0 chosen_VVN to_TO add_VVI the_AT wrong_JJ one_PN1 to_TO &quot;_" exist_VVI &quot;_" (_( the_AT two_MC suffixes_NN2 are_VBR confusingly_RR pronounced_VVN basically_RR the_AT same_DA )_) ._. 
Spelling_NN1 &quot;_" incorporate_VV0 &quot;_" as_II the_AT incorrect_JJ &quot;_" encorporate_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ similar_JJ ,_, this_DD1 time_NNT1 because_CS you_PPY have_VH0 chosen_VVN the_AT prefix_NN1 &quot;_" en_FW &quot;_" instead_II21 of_II22 the_AT prefix_NN1 &quot;_" in_RP &quot;_" ._. 
For_IF each_DD1 word_NN1 you_PPY have_VH0 problems_NN2 spelling_VVG ,_, try_VV0 to_TO think_VVI of_IO a_AT1 reason_NN1 why_RRQ ._. 
Even_CS21 if_CS22 the_AT reason_NN1 does_VDZ n't_XX seem_VVI fully_RR convincing_JJ ,_, or_CC seems_VVZ in_II itself_PPX1 unimportant_JJ ,_, the_AT process_NN1 of_IO analysing_VVG the_AT word_NN1 can_VM sometimes_RT serve_VVI as_II a_AT1 trigger_NN1 which_DDQ enables_VVZ you_PPY to_TO remember_VVI the_AT correct_JJ spelling_NN1 ._. 
Thinking_VVG about_II why_RRQ you_PPY make_VV0 particular_JJ mistakes_NN2 (_( rather_II21 than_II22 just_RR resigning_VVG yourself_PPX1 to_II being_VBG &quot;_" a_AT1 bad_JJ speller_NN1 &quot;_" )_) is_VBZ one_MC1 way_NN1 of_IO overcoming_VVG spelling_NN1 problems_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR important_JJ to_TO develop_VVI the_AT habit_NN1 of_IO checking_VVG words_NN2 in_II your_APPGE own_DA writing_NN1 ._. 
Do_VD0 this_DD1 as_II a_AT1 separate_JJ routine_NN1 after_II writing_VVG if_CS you_PPY are_VBR concerned_JJ not_XX to_TO interrupt_VVI the_AT flow_NN1 of_IO composition_NN1 ._. 
Use_VV0 a_AT1 dictionary_NN1 almost_RR any_DD English_JJ dictionary_NN1 is_VBZ adequate_JJ for_IF this_DD1 purpose_NN1 ;_; and_CC check_VV0 all_DB words_NN2 of_IO which_DDQ you_PPY are_VBR even_RR a_RR21 little_RR22 unsure_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ easy_JJ to_TO become_VVI complacent_JJ and_CC just_RR feel_VV0 that_CST most_DAT of_IO the_AT words_NN2 are_VBR probably_RR right_RR even_CS21 when_CS22 they_PPHS2 are_VBR n't_XX ._. 
However_RRQV you_PPY organise_VV0 your_APPGE checking_NN1 routine_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ crucial_JJ to_TO present_VVI written_JJ work_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN checked_VVN over_RP for_IF spelling_NN1 ._. 
The_AT credibility_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE work_NN1 will_VM suffer_VVI severely_RR if_CS key_JJ words_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 technical_JJ terms_NN2 or_CC people_NN 's_GE names_NN2 ,_, are_VBR misspelled_VVN ._. 
After_II all_DB ,_, what_DDQ would_VM you_PPY ,_, as_CSA a_AT1 reader_NN1 even_RR as_II a_AT1 reader_NN1 sympathetic_JJ to_II language_NN1 variation_NN1 and_CC unpersuaded_JJ by_II prescriptive_JJ manuals_NN2 be_VBI likely_JJ to_TO make_VVI of_IO an_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II symbolism_NN1 which_DDQ repeatedly_RR tells_VVZ you_PPY that_CST things_NN2 are_VBR &quot;_" symbollic_JJ &quot;_" ?_? 6.3_MC GRAMMAR_NN1 :_: HOW_RRQ SENTENCES_NN2 ARE_VBR PUT_VVN TOGETHER_RL Grammatical_JJ errors_NN2 and_CC grammatical_JJ variations_NN2 can_VM arise_VVI when_RRQ you_PPY put_VV0 words_NN2 together_RL into_II phrases_NN2 and_CC phrases_NN2 together_RL into_II a_AT1 sentence_NN1 ._. 
There_EX has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 lot_NN1 of_IO work_NN1 both_RR recently_RR and_CC in_II different_JJ traditions_NN2 over_II a_AT1 very_RG long_RR historical_JJ period_NN1 on_II how_RRQ sentences_NN2 are_VBR put_VVN together_RL ._. 
The_AT details_NN2 of_IO how_RRQ sentences_NN2 work_VV0 are_VBR very_RG complicated_JJ ;_; and_CC even_RR now_RT no_PN121 one_PN122 understands_VVZ fully_RR what_DDQ the_AT actual_JJ rules_NN2 governing_VVG the_AT combination_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 and_CC phrases_NN2 in_II any_DD given_JJ language_NN1 are_VBR ._. 
(_( It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO learn_VVI about_II aspects_NN2 of_IO sentence_NN1 structure_NN1 by_II studying_VVG linguistics_NN1 ,_, specifically_RR the_AT part_NN1 of_IO linguistics_NN1 called_VVN SYNTAX_NN1 ._. )_) 
One_MC1 by-product_NN1 of_IO investigations_NN2 into_II grammar_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT production_NN1 of_IO introductory_JJ books_NN2 like_VV0 Teach_VV0 Yourself_PPX1 English_JJ Grammar_NN1 ,_, and_CC A_ZZ1 University_NN1 Grammar_NN1 of_IO English_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ provide_VV0 accounts_NN2 of_IO most_DAT basic_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO sentence_NN1 formation_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ we_PPIS2 say_VV0 in_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 is_VBZ simplified_VVN ._. 
But_CCB we_PPIS2 hope_VV0 it_PPH1 will_VM be_VBI helpful_JJ with_IW some_DD of_IO the_AT more_RGR common_JJ grammatical_JJ problems_NN2 writers_NN2 run_VVN into_II ._. 
Before_II beginning_VVG our_APPGE discussion_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, we_PPIS2 should_VM perhaps_RR emphasise_VVI once_RR21 more_RR22 the_AT distinction_NN1 between_II an_AT1 error_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 variation_NN1 ._. 
Class_NN1 ,_, regional_JJ and_CC ethnic_JJ variation_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 source_NN1 of_IO difference_NN1 between_II people_NN as_II21 regards_II22 ways_NN2 of_IO writing_VVG a_AT1 sentence_NN1 ;_; but_CCB ,_, just_RR as_CSA in_II spelling_NN1 ,_, there_EX are_VBR STANDARD_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO written_JJ grammar_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ are_VBR intended_VVN to_TO override_VVI differences_NN2 and_CC be_VBI common_JJ to_II everyone_PN1 ._. 
Even_RR21 so_RR22 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ no_AT unchallengeable_JJ rule_NN1 book_NN1 or_CC authority_NN1 you_PPY can_VM turn_VVI to_II which_DDQ will_VM tell_VVI you_PPY exactly_RR what_DDQ is_VBZ standard_JJ and_CC what_DDQ is_VBZ not._NNU 6.4_MC GRAMMATICAL_JJ WORDS_NN2 AND_CC THE_AT USE_NN1 OF_IO &quot;_" THE_AT &quot;_" GRAMMATICAL_JJ WORDS_NN2 typically_RR have_VH0 very_RG specialised_VVN meanings_NN2 and_CC can_VM be_VBI particularly_RR difficult_JJ for_IF non-native_JJ speakers_NN2 to_TO learn_VVI ._. 
Among_II the_AT grammatical_JJ words_NN2 which_DDQ cause_VV0 problems_NN2 are_VBR the_AT prepositions_NN2 (_( words_NN2 like_VV0 &quot;_" of_IO &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" on_RP &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" to_II &quot;_" ,_, etc._RA )_) ;_; choosing_VVG the_AT right_JJ one_PN1 can_VM sometimes_RT be_VBI difficult_JJ ,_, as_CSA in_II the_AT following_JJ example_NN1 :_: impediments_NN2 of_IO industrial_JJ advances_NN2 The_AT preposition_NN1 here_RL should_VM be_VBI to_II ._. 
Grammatical_JJ words_NN2 and_CC grammatical_JJ objects_NN2 like_II suffixes_NN2 (_( as_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN expressing_VVG possession_NN1 ,_, plurality_NN1 or_CC past/present_JJ tense_JJ )_) are_VBR a_AT1 particular_JJ problem_NN1 in_II writing_NN1 ,_, particularly_RR for_IF non-native_JJ speakers_NN2 ,_, and_CC we_PPIS2 will_VM see_VVI further_JJR examples_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT hardest_JJT problems_NN2 to_TO confront_VVI ,_, though_CS ,_, is_VBZ the_AT correct_JJ use_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" (_( the_AT definite_JJ article_NN1 )_) ,_, a_AT1 word_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ no_AT direct_JJ equivalent_NN1 in_II many_DA2 languages_NN2 ._. 
Here_RL are_VBR some_DD sentences_NN2 (_( written_VVN by_II people_NN whose_DDQGE first_MD language_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX English_JJ )_) where_CS we_PPIS2 would_VM not_XX have_VHI used_VVN &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" :_: No_AT movement_NN1 in_II the_AT British_JJ literary_JJ history_NN1 before_II Aestheticism_NN1 ..._... 
Art_NN1 deals_VVZ with_IW the_AT non-existent_JJ ,_, unreal_JJ ,_, abstract_JJ and_CC decorative_JJ images_NN2 ._. 
I_PPIS1 want_VV0 to_TO undertake_VVI the_AT postgraduate_NN1 study_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
Now_RT here_RL are_VBR two_MC cases_NN2 where_CS we_PPIS2 think_VV0 &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" should_VM have_VHI been_VBN used_VVN (_( indicates_VVZ where_RRQ we_PPIS2 would_VM put_VVI &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" )_) :_: In_II 1950s_MC2 the_AT Theatre_NN1 of_IO the_AT Absurd_JJ developed._NNU and_CC were_VBDR part_NN1 of_IO the_AT hierarchic_JJ domesticity_NN1 which_DDQ society_NN1 ,_, bourgeoisie_NN1 in_RR21 particular_RR22 ,_, acted_VVN upon_II ._. 
Even_CS21 though_CS22 we_PPIS2 can_VM be_VBI quite_RG sure_JJ that_CST we_PPIS2 would_VM use_VVI &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" in_II these_DD2 examples_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 remains_VVZ difficult_JJ to_TO explain_VVI exactly_RR how_RRQ we_PPIS2 decide_VV0 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ typical_JJ of_IO what_DDQ it_PPH1 involves_VVZ to_TO speak_VVI a_AT1 language_NN1 fluently_RR :_: you_PPY can_VM do_VDI something_PN1 consistently_RR and_CC in_II agreement_NN1 with_IW other_JJ speakers_NN2 without_IW being_VBG able_JK to_TO explain_VVI why_RRQ ._. 
This_DD1 description_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" fluency_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ hardly_RR helpful_JJ to_II anyone_PN1 who_PNQS is_VBZ having_VHG difficulty_NN1 with_IW English_JJ grammar_NN1 or_CC idioms_NN2 ,_, however_RR ._. 
So_RR what_DDQ we_PPIS2 will_VM try_VVI to_TO do_VDI is_VBZ to_TO work_VVI out_RP a_AT1 preliminary_JJ understanding_NN1 of_IO the_AT conventions_NN2 which_DDQ tell_VV0 English_JJ speakers_NN2 when_RRQ to_TO use_VVI &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" ._. 
As_CSA elsewhere_RL in_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 (_( and_CC book_NN1 )_) ,_, our_APPGE basic_JJ assumption_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 understanding_NN1 leads_VVZ to_II learning_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT &quot;_" is_VBZ used_VVN to_TO introduce_VVI a_AT1 NOUN_NN1 PHRASE_NN1 ,_, or_CC a_AT1 group_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 centring_VVG on_II a_AT1 noun_NN1 which_DDQ together_RL name_VV0 something_PN1 (_( the_AT noun_NN1 phrase_NN1 is_VBZ given_VVN in_II boldface_NN1 in_II the_AT above_JJ examples_NN2 )_) ._. 
What_DDQ &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" does_VDZ is_VBZ to_TO tell_VVI the_AT reader_NN1 that_CST what_DDQ the_AT noun_NN1 phrase_NN1 names_NN2 is_VBZ something_PN1 (_( or_CC belongs_VVZ to_II a_AT1 group_NN1 of_IO things_NN2 )_) which_DDQ is_VBZ already_RR familiar_JJ to_II the_AT reader_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT above_JJ examples_NN2 ,_, &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" has_VHZ a_AT1 meaning_NN1 something_PN1 like_II &quot;_" the_AT phrase_NN1 which_DDQ follows_VVZ names_NN2 something_PN1 which_DDQ belongs_VVZ to_II a_AT1 group_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ already_RR familiar_JJ to_II you_PPY &quot;_" ._. 
So_RR we_PPIS2 say_VV0 &quot;_" the_AT 1950s_MC2 &quot;_" because_CS ,_, as_II part_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 implied_JJ group_NN1 of_IO decades_NNT2 (_( the_AT 1940s_MC2 ,_, the_AT 1960s_MC2 ,_, etc._RA )_) the_AT 1950s_MC2 form_NN1 part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 common_JJ way_NN1 of_IO categorising_VVG the_AT passing_JJ years_NNT2 ._. 
And_CC we_PPIS2 say_VV0 &quot;_" the_AT bourgeoisie_NN1 &quot;_" because_CS the_AT bourgeoisie_NN1 forms_VVZ part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 familiar_JJ group_NN1 of_IO class_NN1 types_NN2 :_: the_AT working_JJ class_NN1 ,_, the_AT upper_JJ class_NN1 ,_, etc_RA ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ exactly_RR this_DD1 kind_NN1 of_IO function_NN1 which_DDQ gives_VVZ the_AT first_MD three_MC examples_NN2 their_APPGE odd_JJ effect_NN1 ._. 
By_II saying_VVG &quot;_" the_AT postgraduate_NN1 study_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, the_AT writer_NN1 is_VBZ implying_VVG that_CST there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 familiar_JJ group_NN1 of_IO types_NN2 of_IO study_NN1 the_AT undergraduate_NN1 study_NN1 ,_, the_AT postdoctoral_JJ study_NN1 ,_, etc._RA ,_, rather_RR like_II the_AT classification_NN1 of_IO decades_NNT2 or_CC social_JJ classes_NN2 ._. 
But_CCB this_DD1 intuitive_JJ classification_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX exist_VVI in_II an_AT1 analogous_JJ way_NN1 ._. 
So_RR the_AT only_JJ justification_NN1 for_IF saying_VVG &quot;_" the_AT postgraduate_NN1 study_NN1 &quot;_" would_VM be_VBI if_CSW the_AT writer_NN1 had_VHD already_RR named_VVN a_AT1 group_NN1 of_IO types_NN2 of_IO study_NN1 (_( so_RR creating_VVG the_AT classification_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC then_RT compared_VVD the_AT postgraduate_NN1 element_NN1 with_IW an_AT1 element_NN1 of_IO undergraduate_NN1 studies_NN2 ._. 
Thus_RR something_PN1 of_IO the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO using_VVG &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" with_IW postgraduate_NN1 study_NN1 might_VM be_VBI seen_VVN in_II the_AT following_JJ (_( still_RR slightly_RR unidiomatic_JJ )_) example_NN1 :_: Of_IO the_AT two_MC phases_NN2 of_IO study_NN1 which_DDQ I_PPIS1 want_VV0 to_TO pursue_VVI ,_, I_PPIS1 want_VV0 to_TO undertake_VVI the_AT postgraduate_NN1 study_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 and_CC the_AT undergraduate_NN1 study_NN1 in_II America_NP1 ._. 
Our_APPGE discussion_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 examples_NN2 suggests_VVZ that_CST you_PPY can_VM use_VVI &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" if_CS you_PPY have_VH0 already_RR created_VVN a_AT1 situation_NN1 where_RRQ you_PPY are_VBR naming_VVG a_AT1 group_NN1 of_IO which_DDQ the_AT &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" phrase_NN1 indicates_VVZ a_AT1 subgroup_NN1 ._. 
Consider_VV0 in_II this_DD1 light_NN1 the_AT following_JJ modification_NN1 to_II one_MC1 of_IO the_AT other_JJ examples_NN2 given_VVN above_RL ;_; all_DB we_PPIS2 have_VH0 done_VDN is_VBZ to_TO add_VVI a_AT1 group_NN1 of_IO things_NN2 (_( &quot;_" kinds_NN2 of_IO images_NN2 &quot;_" )_) of_IO which_DDQ the_AT relevant_JJ phrase_NN1 can_VM be_VBI treated_VVN as_II a_AT1 part_NN1 :_: There_EX are_VBR various_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO images_NN2 which_DDQ can_VM be_VBI explored_VVN ._. 
Art_NN1 deals_VVZ with_IW the_AT non-existent_JJ ,_, unreal_JJ ,_, abstract_JJ and_CC decorative_JJ images_NN2 ._. 
Science_NN1 deals_VVZ with_IW the_AT existent_JJ ,_, real_JJ ,_, concrete_JJ and_CC functional_JJ images_NN2 ._. 
One_MC1 problem_NN1 for_IF the_AT non-native_JJ speaker_NN1 of_IO English_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO decide_VVI when_RRQ a_AT1 group_NN1 can_VM be_VBI assumed_VVN to_TO be_VBI familiar_JJ ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT group_NN1 &quot;_" types_NN2 of_IO class_NN1 &quot;_" (_( giving_VVG &quot;_" the_AT bourgeoisie_NN1 &quot;_" )_) seems_VVZ established_JJ ,_, but_CCB not_XX the_AT group_NN1 &quot;_" types_NN2 of_IO study_NN1 &quot;_" (_( so_RR disallowing_VVG &quot;_" the_AT postgraduate_NN1 study_NN1 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
Knowing_VVG these_DD2 sorts_NN2 of_IO convention_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO be_VBI as_RG much_DA1 part_NN1 of_IO knowledge_NN1 of_IO the_AT culture_NN1 as_CSA knowledge_NN1 of_IO the_AT language_NN1 ._. 
So_RR solving_VVG the_AT difficulty_NN1 involves_VVZ a_AT1 combination_NN1 of_IO understanding_VVG with_IW memorisation_NN1 of_IO particular_JJ examples._NNU 6.5_MC THE_AT PRESENT_NN1 AND_CC THE_AT PAST_JJ TENSE_JJ ,_, the_AT grammatical_JJ expression_NN1 of_IO time_NNT1 ,_, is_VBZ a_AT1 source_NN1 of_IO two_MC distinct_JJ kinds_NN2 of_IO problem_NN1 ,_, each_DD1 of_IO which_DDQ we_PPIS2 should_VM consider_VVI ._. 
One_MC1 problem_NN1 relates_VVZ to_II the_AT grammatical_JJ word_NN1 &quot;_" have_VH0 &quot;_" when_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ used_VVN to_TO express_VVI past_RL tense_VV0 (_( the_AT &quot;_" perfect_JJ &quot;_" use_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" have_VH0 &quot;_" )_) :_: Women_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN particularly_RR targeted_VVN in_II magazines_NN2 ,_, especially_RR during_II the_AT Second_MD World_NN1 War_NN1 ,_, when_CS the_AT British_JJ government_NN1 has_VHZ realised_VVN the_AT importance_NN1 of_IO women_NN2 's_GE magazines_NN2 as_II a_AT1 channel_NN1 of_IO communication_NN1 ._. 
Native_JJ speakers_NN2 of_IO English_NN1 typically_RR use_VV0 &quot;_" have_VH0 &quot;_" in_II the_AT present_JJ tense_NN1 (_( as_CSA in_II these_DD2 two_MC examples_NN2 )_) only_RR when_CS they_PPHS2 want_VV0 to_TO imply_VVI that_CST the_AT event_NN1 described_VVN is_VBZ still_RR happening_VVG or_CC is_VBZ still_RR the_AT case_NN1 ._. 
So_RR we_PPIS2 understand_VV0 the_AT first_MD &quot;_" have_VH0 &quot;_" to_TO mean_VVI that_CST women_NN2 are_VBR still_RR targeted_VVN which_DDQ in_II this_DD1 instance_NN1 probably_RR is_VBZ n't_XX the_AT meaning_NN1 the_AT writer_NN1 intends_VVZ ._. 
The_AT second_NNT1 &quot;_" have_VH0 &quot;_" (_( =_FO &quot;_" has_VHZ &quot;_" )_) seems_VVZ odd_JJ because_CS the_AT realisation_NN1 happened_VVD only_RR during_II the_AT Second_MD World_NN1 War_NN1 and_CC is_VBZ now_RT clearly_RR finished_VVN ._. 
The_AT second_MD problem_NN1 involving_VVG tense_NN1 relates_VVZ to_II whether_CSW you_PPY should_VM use_VVI the_AT present_NN1 or_CC the_AT past_JJ tense_NN1 in_II your_APPGE writing_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ generally_RR the_AT present_JJ tense_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ used_VVN when_CS you_PPY describe_VV0 a_AT1 text_NN1 ,_, even_CS21 when_CS22 you_PPY describe_VV0 it_PPH1 in_II terms_NN2 which_DDQ place_VV0 it_PPH1 in_II the_AT past_NN1 (_( e.g._REX by_II mentioning_VVG the_AT author_NN1 )_) :_: In_II Los_NP1 Gusanos_NP1 (_( 1991_MC )_) John_NP1 Sayles_NP2 describes_VVZ Miami_NP1 as_II it_PPH1 was_VBDZ in_II the_AT early_JJ 1980s_MC2 ._. 
He_PPHS1 constructs_NN2 a_AT1 complex_JJ set_NN1 of_IO interrelationships_NN2 between_II the_AT different_JJ ethnic_JJ groups_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 would_VM sound_VVI odd_JJ to_TO put_VVI this_DD1 description_NN1 into_II the_AT past_JJ tense_JJ ,_, with_IW &quot;_" described_JJ &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" constructed_VVN &quot;_" ,_, unless_CS you_PPY were_VBDR deliberately_RR emphasising_VVG the_AT the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST this_DD1 book_NN1 was_VBDZ produced_VVN at_II a_AT1 particular_JJ point_NN1 in_II the_AT past_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO compare_VVI it_PPH1 explicitly_RR with_IW a_AT1 book_NN1 written_VVN more_RGR recently_RR ._. 
The_AT present_JJ tense_NN1 is_VBZ generally_RR also_RR used_VVN when_CS telling_VVG a_AT1 story_NN1 ,_, as_CSA in_II a_AT1 summary_NN1 of_IO the_AT narrative_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 novel_NN1 ._. 
The_AT present_JJ tense_NN1 is_VBZ used_VVN in_II this_DD1 case_NN1 because_CS it_PPH1 carries_VVZ a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO immediacy_NN1 and_CC impact_NN1 ._. 
Past_RL tense_VV0 ,_, on_II the_AT other_JJ hand_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ generally_RR used_VVN for_IF describing_VVG situations_NN2 or_CC narrating_VVG events_NN2 outside_II the_AT work(s)_NN you_PPY are_VBR discussing_VVG ,_, such_II21 as_II22 those_DD2 of_IO national_JJ or_CC cultural_JJ history_NN1 or_CC the_AT development_NN1 of_IO literary_JJ traditions_NN2 ._. 
Once_CS you_PPY have_VH0 decided_VVN which_DDQ tense_VV0 to_TO use_VVI for_IF a_AT1 particular_JJ section_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE essay_NN1 ,_, check_VV0 that_CST you_PPY are_VBR consistent_JJ do_VD0 not_XX for_REX21 example_REX22 start_VVI a_AT1 narrative_NN1 in_II one_MC1 tense_JJ and_CC later_JJR change_NN1 into_II another_DD1 ,_, unless_CS you_PPY have_VH0 a_AT1 very_RG good_JJ reason_NN1 for_IF doing_VDG so._NNU 6.6_MC CO-REFERENCE_NN1 One_MC1 of_IO the_AT techniques_NN2 of_IO cohesion_NN1 (_( see_VV0 Chapter_NN1 5_MC ,_, p._NN1 100_MC )_) is_VBZ that_CST instead_II21 of_II22 repeating_VVG a_AT1 phrase_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO use_VVI what_DDQ are_VBR called_VVN grammatical_JJ words_NN2 like_II pronouns_NN2 &quot;_" it_PPH1 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" he_PPHS1 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" she_PPHS1 &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" they_PPHS2 &quot;_" ,_, or_CC demonstratives_NN2 like_II &quot;_" this_DD1 &quot;_" ._. 
However_RR ,_, this_DD1 too_RR can_VM be_VBI a_AT1 source_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG difficulties_NN2 ._. 
Usually_RR you_PPY would_VM use_VVI the_AT demonstrative_JJ &quot;_" this_DD1 &quot;_" rather_II21 than_II22 the_AT pronoun_NN1 &quot;_" it_PPH1 &quot;_" to_TO refer_VVI to_II a_AT1 text_NN1 ;_; that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, you_PPY would_VM not_XX do_VDI as_CSA the_AT following_JJ writer_NN1 has_VHZ done_VDN :_: Serrusalmus_NP1 by_II Lesley_NP1 Glaister_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ about_II an_AT1 amazing_JJ patient_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" Agoraphobia_NP1 &quot;_" ,_, Marjorie_NP1 ._. 
Instead_RR ,_, the_AT writer_NN1 should_VM have_VHI simply_RR combined_VVN these_DD2 into_II a_AT1 single_JJ sentence_NN1 without_IW &quot;_" It_PPH1 &quot;_" ,_, or_CC kept_VVD two_MC sentences_NN2 but_CCB replaced_VVD &quot;_" It_PPH1 &quot;_" with_IW &quot;_" This_DD1 text_NN1 &quot;_" ._. 
A_AT1 common_JJ problem_NN1 with_IW co-referential_JJ items_NN2 like_II pronouns_NN2 and_CC demonstratives_NN2 arises_VVZ when_RRQ it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX clear_RR what_DDQ they_PPHS2 refer_VV0 to_II :_: Sir_NNB William_NP1 Lucas_NP1 is_VBZ &quot;_" in_II earnest_JJ contemplation_NN1 of_IO the_AT greatness_NN1 before_II him_PPHO1 &quot;_" and_CC his_APPGE daughter_NN1 Maria_NP1 &quot;_" frightened_VVD almost_RR out_II21 of_II22 her_APPGE senses_NN2 &quot;_" when_CS they_PPHS2 meet_VV0 Lady_NNB Catherine_NP1 at_II Rosings_NP1 ,_, which_DDQ expresses_VVZ their_APPGE simplicity_NN1 and_CC nature_NN1 to_TO be_VBI easily_RR impressed_VVN by_II grandeur_NN1 and_CC presentation_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX surprising_JJ ,_, since_CS Sir_NNB William_NP1 had_VHD been_VBN knighted_VVN ..._... 
The_AT difficulty_NN1 here_RL lies_VVZ in_II what_DDQ &quot;_" this_DD1 &quot;_" refers_VVZ to_II in_II the_AT second_MD sentence_NN1 ._. 
Is_VBZ it_PPH1 (_( a_ZZ1 )_) how_RRQ Sir_NNB William_NP1 Lucas_NP1 feels_VVZ ,_, or_CC (_( b_ZZ1 )_) how_RRQ Maria_NP1 feels_VVZ ,_, or_CC (_( c_ZZ1 )_) the_AT relation_NN1 between_II their_APPGE feelings_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE &quot;_" simplicity_NN1 and_CC nature_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, or_CC (_( d_ZZ1 )_) some_DD combination_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 ?_? 
(_( Notice_VV0 ,_, too_RR ,_, an_AT1 analogous_JJ problem_NN1 with_IW &quot;_" which_DDQ &quot;_" in_II the_AT preceding_JJ sentence_NN1 ._. )_) 
The_AT writer_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 essay_NN1 should_VM have_VHI noticed_VVN the_AT possibility_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 ambiguity_NN1 or_CC difficulty_NN1 for_IF the_AT reader_NN1 in_II tracing_VVG the_AT reference_NN1 back_NN1 ,_, and_CC could_VM have_VHI solved_VVN the_AT problem_NN1 by_II replacing_VVG the_AT ambiguous_JJ word_NN1 &quot;_" this_DD1 &quot;_" with_IW a_AT1 phrase_NN1 which_DDQ makes_VVZ clear_JJ who_PNQS or_CC what_DDQ is_VBZ being_VBG referred_VVN to_II ,_, such_II21 as_II22 ,_, perhaps_RR &quot;_" That_CST Sir_NNB William_NP1 should_VM feel_VVI this_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX surprising_JJ since_CS he_PPHS1 had_VHD been_VBN knighted_VVN ._. 
&quot;_" 6.7_MC SUBJECT_NN1 AND_CC VERB_NN1 The_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO most_DAT written_JJ sentences_NN2 fits_VVZ a_AT1 pattern_NN1 or_CC template_NN1 which_DDQ we_PPIS2 can_VM represent_VVI like_II this_DD1 :_: subject_NN1 phrase_NN1 (_( optional_JJ )_) auxiliary_JJ verbs_NN2 verb_NN1 ..._... 
The_AT SUBJECT_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 phrase_NN1 :_: usually_RR a_AT1 group_NN1 of_IO words_NN2 ,_, generally_RR centred_VVN around_II a_AT1 noun_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ together_RL name_VV0 something_PN1 ._. 
Between_II the_AT subject_NN1 and_CC the_AT verb_NN1 there_EX can_VM be_VBI various_JJ words_NN2 ,_, including_II the_AT perfect_JJ &quot;_" have_VH0 &quot;_" discussed_VVN in_II the_AT last_MD section_NN1 (_( an_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 optional_JJ auxiliary_JJ verb_NN1 )_) ._. 
Two_MC familiar_JJ mistakes_NN2 in_II written_JJ English_NN1 (_( made_VVN even_RR by_II fluent_JJ native_JJ speakers_NN2 )_) occur_VV0 between_II the_AT subject_NN1 and_CC the_AT verb_NN1 :_: one_PN1 involves_VVZ &quot;_" agreement_NN1 &quot;_" ,_, the_AT other_NN1 involves_VVZ punctuation_NN1 ._. 
We_PPIS2 look_VV0 first_MD at_II the_AT agreement_NN1 problem_NN1 ,_, and_CC come_VV0 to_II the_AT punctuation_NN1 problem_NN1 as_II part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 more_RGR general_JJ discussion_NN1 of_IO punctuation_NN1 ._. 
In_II many_DA2 grammar_NN1 books_NN2 you_PPY will_VM find_VVI a_AT1 rule_NN1 which_DDQ says_VVZ that_CST the_AT subject_NN1 AGREES_VVZ WITH_IW the_AT verb_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 rule_NN1 refers_VVZ to_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST a_AT1 subject_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ (_( or_CC is_VBZ centred_VVN around_RP )_) a_AT1 singular_JJ noun_NN1 is_VBZ followed_VVN by_II a_AT1 verb_NN1 which_DDQ has_VHZ the_AT suffix_NN1 s_ZZ1 added_VVN to_II it_PPH1 ._. 
In_II older_JJR forms_NN2 of_IO English_NN1 (_( roughly_RR until_CS the_AT sixteenth_MD century_NNT1 )_) ,_, and_CC in_II many_DA2 other_JJ languages_NN2 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ much_DA1 more_DAR agreement_NN1 than_CSN this_DD1 ;_; so_CS it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI the_AT leftover_JJ ,_, or_CC residual_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO agreement_NN1 in_II English_NN1 which_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT source_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE difficulty_NN1 ._. 
Certainly_RR some_DD dialects_NN2 of_IO English_NN1 (_( such_II21 as_II22 Urban_JJ Black_JJ English_NN1 in_II the_AT USA_NP1 )_) have_VH0 developed_VVN further_RRR ,_, to_II the_AT point_NN1 where_RRQ there_EX is_VBZ no_AT agreement_NN1 at_RR21 all_RR22 ._. 
Here_RL are_VBR some_DD examples_NN2 where_RRQ the_AT subject_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX agree_VVI with_IW the_AT verb_NN1 (_( i.e._REX these_DD2 will_VM therefore_RR generally_RR be_VBI classed_VVN as_CSA &quot;_" mistakes_NN2 &quot;_" )_) ._. 
The_AT main_JJ noun_NN1 in_II the_AT subject_NN1 is_VBZ boldfaced_VVN ,_, the_AT verb_NN1 is_VBZ italicised_VVN ._. 
The_AT study_NN1 of_IO commercial_JJ advertisements_NN2 in_RR21 general_RR22 aim_VV0 to_TO isolate_VVI a_AT1 single_JJ issue_NN1 ._. 
Advocates_NN2 of_IO Northrop-Frye-style_NP1 genre_NN1 analysis_NN1 believes_VVZ ..._... 
The_AT analysis_NN1 of_IO the_AT adverts_NN2 demonstrate_VV0 that_CST ..._... 
The_AT use_NN1 of_IO ambiguity_NN1 and_CC puns_NN2 are_VBR another_DD1 feature_NN1 ..._... 
In_II each_DD1 of_IO these_DD2 sentences_NN2 the_AT subject_NN1 contains_VVZ several_DA2 nouns_NN2 ._. 
And_CC in_II each_DD1 subject_NN1 ,_, the_AT central_JJ noun_NN1 (_( the_AT one_PN1 in_II bold_JJ face_NN1 which_DDQ defines_VVZ the_AT basic_JJ meaning_NN1 of_IO the_AT subject_NN1 )_) is_VBZ the_AT first_MD one_PN1 ._. 
The_AT writers_NN2 have_VH0 mistakenly_RR made_VVN the_AT verb_NN1 agree_VVI not_XX with_IW this_DD1 noun_NN1 but_CCB with_IW the_AT final_JJ noun_NN1 in_II the_AT subject_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, in_II the_AT first_MD case_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT study_NN1 which_DDQ aims_VVZ to_TO isolate_VVI the_AT issue_NN1 (_( and_CC so_RR &quot;_" study_NN1 &quot;_" should_VM agree_VVI with_IW the_AT verb_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC not_XX the_AT advertisements_NN2 which_DDQ aim_VV0 to_TO isolate_VVI the_AT issue_NN1 ._. 
The_AT following_JJ sentence_NN1 shows_VVZ a_AT1 slightly_RR different_JJ (_( but_CCB also_RR common_JJ )_) agreement_NN1 error_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 chapter_NN1 deals_VVZ with_IW the_AT different_JJ linguistic_JJ choices_NN2 that_CST shapes_NN2 women_NN2 's_GE magazine_NN1 advertisements_NN2 ._. 
Shapes_NN2 should_VM agree_VVI with_IW choices_NN2 (_( i.e._REX it_PPH1 should_VM be_VBI &quot;_" choices_NN2 that_CST shape_NN1 ..._... &quot;_" )_) but_CCB the_AT intervening_JJ &quot;_" that_CST &quot;_" seems_VVZ to_TO have_VHI interfered_VVN ,_, as_CS21 though_CS22 it_PPH1 is_VBZ taken_VVN to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 singular_JJ subject_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 third_MD common_JJ agreement_NN1 error_NN1 involves_VVZ sentences_NN2 which_DDQ begin_VV0 with_IW &quot;_" There_RL is_VBZ &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" There_EX are_VBR &quot;_" ,_, with_IW the_AT real_JJ subject_NN1 shifted_VVN to_II later_JJR in_II the_AT sentence_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ this_DD1 shifted_VVD subject_NN1 which_DDQ decides_VVZ whether_CSW the_AT verb_NN1 is_VBZ singular_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ &quot;_" or_CC plural_NN1 &quot;_" are_VBR &quot;_" :_: In_II some_DD cases_NN2 there_EX was_VBDZ plenty_PN of_IO references_NN2 to_II the_AT protagonist_NN1 's_GE body_NN1 parts_NN2 ._. 
Here_RL the_AT verb_NN1 should_VM have_VHI been_VBN &quot;_" were_VBDR &quot;_" because_II21 of_II22 plural_JJ &quot;_" references_NN2 &quot;_" ._. 
Another_DD1 common_JJ error_NN1 involving_VVG the_AT match_NN1 between_II subject_NN1 and_CC verb_NN1 involves_VVZ unrelated_JJ (_( or_CC so-called_JJ &quot;_" dangling_VVG &quot;_" )_) participles_VVZ ,_, which_DDQ occur_VV0 when_RRQ a_AT1 participle_NN1 used_VVN at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 sentence_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX match_VVI with_IW the_AT grammatical_JJ subject_NN1 of_IO the_AT sentence_NN1 ._. 
(_( A_ZZ1 PARTICIPLE_NP1 is_VBZ a_AT1 verb_NN1 form_NN1 ending_VVG in_II &quot;_" -ing_NN1 &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" -ed_NN1 &quot;_" ._. )_) 
Unrelated_JJ participles_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX usually_RR seriously_RR impede_VV0 a_AT1 reader_NN1 's_GE understanding_NN1 ,_, but_CCB they_PPHS2 are_VBR generally_RR considered_VVN incorrect_JJ forms_NN2 ._. 
Consider_VV0 the_AT following_JJ example_NN1 (_( with_IW the_AT unrelated_JJ participle_NN1 italicised_VVN )_) :_: Having_VHG discussed_VVN this_DD1 poem_NN1 's_GE beginning_NN1 ,_, the_AT next_MD stanza_NN1 shows_VVZ a_AT1 marked_JJ change_NN1 of_IO mood_NN1 ._. 
The_AT writer_NN1 means_VVZ that_CST she_PPHS1 or_CC he_PPHS1 has_VHZ discussed_VVN the_AT poem_NN1 's_GE meaning_NN1 ,_, but_CCB the_AT sentence_NN1 literally_RR says_VVZ that_CST the_AT next_MD stanza_NN1 discusses_VVZ the_AT poem_NN1 's_GE beginning_NN1 (_( an_AT1 unintended_JJ meaning_NN1 )_) ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ because_CS &quot;_" the_AT next_MD stanza_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ interpreted_VVN as_II the_AT subject_NN1 of_IO the_AT dangling_JJ participle_NN1 ._. 
Compare_VV0 :_: Encouraged_VVN by_II the_AT success_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE early_JJ publications_NN2 ,_, Charlotte_NP1 Bront_NP1 gave_VVD over_RP increased_JJ amounts_NN2 of_IO time_NNT1 to_II writing_NN1 ._. 
Here_RL ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ Charlotte_NP1 Bront_NP1 who_PNQS is_VBZ the_AT implied_JJ subject_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" encouraged_VVN &quot;_" ;_; and_CC she_PPHS1 is_VBZ also_RR the_AT grammatical_JJ subject_NN1 of_IO the_AT sentence_NN1 ._. 
So_RR in_II this_DD1 last_MD example_NN1 the_AT participle_NN1 form_NN1 does_VDZ match_VVI up_RP and_CC produces_VVZ a_AT1 grammatically_RR well-formed_JJ sentence._NNU 6.8_MC PUNCTUATION_NN1 Punctuation_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 way_NN1 of_IO showing_VVG your_APPGE reader_NN1 the_AT structure_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE sentences_NN2 :_: it_PPH1 separates_VVZ successive_JJ units_NN2 (_( such_II21 as_II22 sentences_NN2 by_II full_JJ stops_NN2 ,_, or_CC items_NN2 in_II a_AT1 list_NN1 by_II commas_NN2 )_) and_CC specifies_VVZ what_DDQ function_VV0 words_NN2 have_VH0 (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 when_CS an_AT1 apostrophe_NN1 indicates_VVZ possession_NN1 )_) ._. 
Conventions_NN2 of_IO punctuation_NN1 have_VH0 changed_VVN (_( and_CC some_DD writers_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 William_NP1 Blake_NP1 ,_, Emily_NP1 Dickinson_NP1 and_CC Samuel_NP1 Beckett_NP1 ,_, have_VH0 experimented_VVN with_IW different_JJ ,_, personalised_JJ conventions_NN2 )_) ._. 
The_AT basic_JJ conventions_NN2 for_IF the_AT four_MC most_RGT common_JJ punctuation_NN1 marks_NN2 are_VBR :_: The_AT FULL_JJ STOP_NN1 (_( also_RR called_VVN a_AT1 PERIOD_NN1 or_CC FULL_JJ POINT_NN1 )_) Put_VVD a_AT1 full_JJ stop_NN1 (_( ._. )_) 
at_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 complete_JJ sentence_NN1 (_( i.e._REX a_AT1 sentence_NN1 which_DDQ at_RR21 least_RR22 contains_VVZ a_AT1 verb_NN1 )_) ._. 
Be_VB0 careful_JJ not_XX to_TO break_VVI up_RP a_AT1 sentence_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 full_JJ stop_NN1 :_: Although_CS she_PPHS1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 mentally_RR ill_JJ person_NN1 who_PNQS lived_VVD in_II her_APPGE own_DA mind_NN1 and_CC was_VBDZ allocated_VVN a_AT1 limited_JJ number_NN1 of_IO mental_JJ processes_NN2 ._. 
She_PPHS1 was_VBDZ determined_VVN to_TO act_VVI ,_, to_TO do_VDI something_PN1 about_II this_DD1 predator_NN1 ._. 
Here_RL ,_, the_AT writer_NN1 has_VHZ put_VVN a_AT1 full_JJ stop_NN1 between_II &quot;_" processes_NN2 &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" she_PPHS1 &quot;_" ,_, probably_RR because_CS the_AT whole_JJ sentence_NN1 (_( with_IW a_AT1 comma_NN1 instead_II21 of_II22 a_AT1 full_JJ stop_NN1 )_) would_VM have_VHI been_VBN long_JJ ._. 
But_CCB this_DD1 is_VBZ incorrect_JJ because_CS the_AT &quot;_" Although_CS ..._... processes_NN2 &quot;_" clause_NN1 is_VBZ adverbial_JJ (_( see_VV0 below_RL under_II discussion_NN1 of_IO commas_NN2 ,_, )_) ,_, and_CC so_RR should_VM be_VBI separated_VVN from_II the_AT &quot;_" She_PPHS1 ..._... predator_NN1 &quot;_" part_NN1 by_II a_AT1 comma_NN1 ._. 
SEMICOLON_NP1 Put_VVD a_AT1 semicolon_NN1 (_( ;_; )_) between_II two_MC complete_JJ clauses_NN2 (_( in_II linguistics_NN1 often_RR called_VVN &quot;_" sentences_NN2 &quot;_" )_) to_TO make_VVI them_PPHO2 one_MC1 larger_JJR sentence_NN1 :_: The_AT next_MD verse_NN1 is_VBZ significantly_RR longer_RRR than_CSN the_AT first_MD ;_; this_DD1 can_VM be_VBI understood_VVN as_II a_AT1 symbolic_JJ representation_NN1 of_IO the_AT importance_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE contents_NN2 ._. 
Whenever_RRQV you_PPY use_VV0 a_AT1 semicolon_NN1 ,_, note_VV0 that_CST you_PPY also_RR had_VHD the_AT option_NN1 of_IO using_VVG a_AT1 full_JJ stop_NN1 instead_RR ._. 
Putting_VVG two_MC sentences_NN2 together_RL into_II one_MC1 sentence_NN1 ,_, instead_II21 of_II22 keeping_VVG them_PPHO2 as_CSA separate_JJ sentences_NN2 ,_, indicates_VVZ a_AT1 certain_JJ degree_NN1 of_IO closeness_NN1 between_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
(_( &quot;_" Closeness_NN1 &quot;_" here_RL means_VVZ association_NN1 of_IO meaning_NN1 or_CC way_NN1 of_IO dealing_VVG with_IW related_JJ topics_NN2 ,_, not_XX simply_RR physical_JJ closeness_NN1 ._. )_) 
COLON_NN1 Put_VVD a_AT1 colon_NN1 (_( :_: )_) between_II two_MC complete_JJ clauses_NN2 to_TO make_VVI them_PPHO2 one_MC1 larger_JJR sentence_NN1 :_: The_AT difference_NN1 between_II Pip_NP1 and_CC the_AT other_JJ characters_NN2 appears_VVZ again_RT when_CS we_PPIS2 see_VV0 how_RRQ people_NN deal_VV0 with_IW this_DD1 :_: Pip_NP1 continues_VVZ to_TO show_VVI Estella_NP1 that_CST he_PPHS1 still_RR wants_VVZ her_PPHO1 ,_, never_RR giving_VVG up_RP ._. 
This_DD1 &quot;_" instruction_NN1 &quot;_" for_IF how_RRQ to_TO use_VVI a_AT1 colon_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT same_DA as_CSA the_AT instruction_NN1 for_IF how_RRQ to_TO use_VVI a_AT1 semicolon_NN1 ._. 
Both_DB2 are_VBR used_VVN to_TO put_VVI two_MC sentences_NN2 together_RL into_II one_MC1 ._. 
The_AT specific_JJ effect_NN1 of_IO using_VVG a_AT1 colon_NN1 instead_II21 of_II22 a_AT1 semicolon_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO suggest_VVI that_DD1 what_DDQ comes_VVZ next_MD is_VBZ a_AT1 more_RGR specific_JJ example_NN1 ,_, or_CC an_AT1 explanation_NN1 ,_, of_IO what_DDQ was_VBDZ said_VVN in_II the_AT first_MD sentence_NN1 ._. 
Thus_RR colons_NN2 are_VBR used_VVN to_TO expand_VVI and_CC explain_VVI ;_; semi-colons_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO introduce_VVI thoughts_NN2 connected_VVN in_II other_JJ ways_NN2 ._. 
COMMA_NN1 The_AT comma_NN1 (_( ,_, )_) is_VBZ the_AT most_RGT commonly_RR used_JJ punctuation_NN1 mark_NN1 inside_II a_AT1 sentence_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX normally_RR used_VVN between_II two_MC complete_JJ sentences_NN2 (_( where_CS a_AT1 semicolon_NN1 or_CC colon_NN1 is_VBZ used_VVN instead_RR )_) ,_, but_CCB is_VBZ used_VVN to_TO separate_VVI off_RP various_JJ supplementary_JJ things_NN2 in_II a_AT1 sentence_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 include_VV0 :_: *_FU Two_MC complete_JJ sentences_NN2 where_RRQ the_AT second_MD sentence_NN1 begins_VVZ with_IW &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" ,_, &quot;_" but_CCB &quot;_" ,_, or_CC &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" (_( though_CS this_DD1 usage_NN1 varies_VVZ depending_II21 on_II22 the_AT &quot;_" dialect_NN1 &quot;_" of_IO written_JJ English_NN1 you_PPY use_VV0 )_) :_: This_DD1 is_VBZ Dickens_NP1 's_GE final_JJ comment_NN1 ,_, and_CC in_II future_NN1 he_PPHS1 avoided_VVD the_AT topic_NN1 of_IO school_NN1 education._NNU *_FU A_ZZ1 comment_NN1 (_( not_XX in_II itself_PPX1 a_AT1 complete_JJ clause_NN1 )_) about_II the_AT main_JJ clause_NN1 like_II the_AT comments_NN2 in_II italics_NN2 below_RL ,_, which_DDQ may_VM include_VVI indications_NN2 of_IO time_NNT1 ,_, place_NN1 and_CC manner_NN1 (_( and_CC which_DDQ are_VBR called_VVN ADVERBIALS_NP2 )_) :_: Whenever_RRQV she_PPHS1 leaves_VVZ the_AT house_NN1 ,_, the_AT heroine_NN1 seems_VVZ to_TO become_VVI bolder_JJR ._. 
Lawrence_NP1 concentrated_VVD on_II writing_VVG rather_II21 than_II22 painting_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ was_VBDZ fortunate._NNU *_FU Additional_JJ information_NN1 is_VBZ added_VVN in_II a_AT1 phrase_NN1 or_CC clause_NN1 placed_VVN next_II21 to_II22 (_( in_II APPOSITION_NN1 with_IW )_) something_PN1 already_RR named_VVN in_II the_AT sentence_NN1 which_DDQ it_PPH1 also_RR refers_VVZ to_II ._. 
In_II such_DA cases_NN2 ,_, commas_NN2 are_VBR placed_VVN both_RR before_CS and_CC after_CS the_AT added_JJ phrase_NN1 or_CC clause_NN1 (_( which_DDQ is_VBZ italicised_VVN in_II the_AT examples_NN2 which_DDQ follow_VV0 )_) ._. 
Melville_NP1 's_GE great_JJ novel_NN1 ,_, Moby_NP1 Dick_NP1 ,_, is_VBZ in_II many_DA2 ways_NN2 a_AT1 troublesome_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
The_AT pagan_NN1 ,_, who_PNQS with_IW his_APPGE tattoos_NN2 and_CC shrunken_JJ heads_NN2 appears_VVZ to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 terrible_JJ savage_NN1 in_II the_AT beginning_NN1 ,_, turns_VVZ out_RP to_TO be_VBI the_AT most_RGT noble_JJ character_NN1 in_II the_AT novel_NN1 ._. 
Many_DA2 writers_NN2 incorrectly_RR put_VV0 a_AT1 comma_NN1 only_RR before_II the_AT appositive_JJ element_NN1 and_CC forget_VV0 to_TO put_VVI one_PN1 after_CS it_PPH1 as_RR21 well_RR22 ._. 
Generally_RR ,_, when_CS you_PPY wish_VV0 to_TO punctuate_VVI a_AT1 piece_NN1 of_IO optional_JJ ,_, additional_JJ information_NN1 or_CC an_AT1 aside_NN1 that_CST you_PPY are_VBR embedding_VVG in_II the_AT middle_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 sentence_NN1 for_REX21 example_REX22 with_IW commas_NN2 ,_, dashes_NN2 or_CC brackets_NN2 then_RT whatever_DDQV punctuation_NN1 you_PPY use_VV0 should_VM be_VBI placed_VVN both_RR before_CS and_CC after_CS the_AT added_JJ element_NN1 to_TO signal_VVI its_APPGE boundaries_NN2 ,_, not_XX just_RR at_II one_MC1 end_NN1 or_CC the_AT other_JJ ._. 
In_II many_DA2 cases_NN2 ,_, however_RR ,_, despite_II the_AT existence_NN1 of_IO general_JJ conventions_NN2 it_PPH1 remains_VVZ a_AT1 writer_NN1 's_GE personal_JJ decision_NN1 whether_CSW to_TO use_VVI a_AT1 comma_NN1 or_CC not_XX ._. 
Some_DD people_NN like_II using_VVG commas_NN2 and_CC others_NN2 prefer_VV0 not_XX to_TO ._. 
Commas_NN2 help_VV0 your_APPGE reader_NN1 to_TO understand_VVI the_AT structure_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 sentence_NN1 ,_, but_CCB like_II any_DD other_JJ kind_NN1 of_IO detailed_JJ structuring_NN1 they_PPHS2 risk_VV0 interfering_VVG with_IW reading_VVG instead_II21 of_II22 helping_VVG it_PPH1 ._. 
Punctuation_NN1 has_VHZ sometimes_RT been_VBN used_VVN to_TO imitate_VVI the_AT pauses_NN2 a_AT1 speaker_NN1 might_VM make_VVI if_CS reading_VVG a_AT1 sentence_NN1 aloud_RR ,_, and_CC commas_NN2 often_RR keep_VV0 something_PN1 of_IO this_DD1 function_NN1 still_RR ._. 
As_II an_AT1 example_NN1 of_IO how_RRQ punctuation_NN1 rules_NN2 work_VV0 ,_, consider_VV0 the_AT rule_NN1 which_DDQ forbids_VVZ you_PPY inserting_VVG a_AT1 comma_NN1 to_TO separate_VVI the_AT subject_NN1 and_CC the_AT verb_NN1 ._. 
Despite_II this_DD1 rule_NN1 ,_, writers_NN2 commonly_RR do_VD0 this_DD1 ,_, as_CSA can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN from_II the_AT following_JJ examples_NN2 :_: The_AT quasi-totality_NN1 of_IO students_NN2 in_II my_APPGE department_NN1 ,_, opted_VVN for_IF English_NN1 ..._... 
However_RR ,_, a_AT1 close_JJ analysis_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE individual_JJ texts_NN2 ,_, has_VHZ been_VBN under-researched_VVN ..._... 
Existing_JJ biographical_JJ ,_, historical_JJ and_CC philosophical_JJ works_NN on_II Oscar_NP1 Wilde_NP1 ,_, have_VH0 enhanced_VVN our_APPGE knowledge_NN1 and_CC understanding_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE literary_JJ personality_NN1 ..._... 
These_DD2 are_VBR interesting_JJ cases_NN2 of_IO punctuation_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ that_CST the_AT writers_NN2 may_VM have_VHI decided_VVN ,_, in_II each_DD1 case_NN1 ,_, that_CST the_AT rule_NN1 had_VHD to_TO be_VBI broken_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO help_VVI the_AT reader_NN1 follow_VV0 the_AT sentence_NN1 ._. 
Evidently_RR in_II each_DD1 sentence_NN1 the_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO the_AT comma_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO tell_VVI you_PPY that_CST an_AT1 unusually_RR long_JJ subject_NN1 has_VHZ finished_VVN and_CC that_CST the_AT verb_NN1 is_VBZ about_RPK to_TO follow_VVI ._. 
But_CCB is_VBZ it_PPH1 a_AT1 good_JJ idea_NN1 to_TO break_VVI the_AT punctuation_NN1 rule_NN1 ,_, even_RR for_IF such_DA a_AT1 reason_NN1 ?_? 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ arguable_JJ that_CST the_AT reader_NN1 may_VM actually_RR be_VBI confused_VVN rather_CS21 than_CS22 helped_VVN by_II the_AT deviation_NN1 from_II convention_NN1 ,_, precisely_RR because_CS she_PPHS1 or_CC he_PPHS1 is_VBZ expecting_VVG you_PPY to_TO conform_VVI to_II the_AT rules_NN2 of_IO punctuation_NN1 ._. 
The_AT question_NN1 of_IO keeping_VVG to_II convention_NN1 versus_II innovating_JJ is_VBZ particularly_RR acute_JJ in_II this_DD1 kind_NN1 of_IO example_NN1 ;_; and_CC on_II balance_NN1 it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI a_AT1 good_JJ idea_NN1 to_TO reformulate_VVI problematic_JJ sentences_NN2 slightly_RR so_CS21 that_CS22 they_PPHS2 can_VM follow_VVI punctuation_NN1 conventions_NN2 and_CC be_VBI clear_JJ at_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 ._. 
Another_DD1 place_NN1 where_RRQ writers_NN2 put_VV0 commas_NN2 &quot;_" illegally_RR &quot;_" is_VBZ between_II a_AT1 verb_NN1 which_DDQ describes_VVZ saying_VVG and_CC the_AT sentence_NN1 which_DDQ presents_VVZ what_DDQ is_VBZ said_VVN :_: what_DDQ John_NP1 Clarke_NP1 calls_VVZ ,_, &quot;_" the_AT subcultural_JJ bricoleurs_NN2 &quot;_" ..._... 
This_DD1 example_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 interesting_JJ one_PN1 because_CS different_JJ people_NN have_VH0 different_JJ views_NN2 about_II whether_CSW31 or_CSW32 not_CSW33 it_PPH1 is_VBZ in_II fact_NN1 &quot;_" illegal_JJ &quot;_" ._. 
We_PPIS2 think_VV0 the_AT writer_NN1 probably_RR used_VVN a_AT1 comma_NN1 here_RL in_II imitation_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 similar_JJ kind_NN1 of_IO example_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" John_NP1 Clarke_NP1 said_VVD ,_, 'these_NN1 are_VBR subcultural_JJ bricoleurs_NN2 ..._... 
'_" &quot;_" We_PPIS2 ourselves_PPX2 would_VM not_XX have_VHI used_VVN a_AT1 comma_NN1 in_II the_AT example_NN1 above_RL because_CS we_PPIS2 think_VV0 in_II that_DD1 example_NN1 there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 greater_JJR degree_NN1 of_IO interdependence_NN1 between_II the_AT parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT sentence_NN1 ._. 
In_II this_DD1 rather_RG similar_JJ example_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, we_PPIS2 think_VV0 it_PPH1 is_VBZ much_RR clearer_JJR that_CST the_AT comma_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 mistake_NN1 and_CC far_RG less_RGR likely_JJ that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ simply_RR a_AT1 style_NN1 variant_NN1 :_: This_DD1 has_VHZ the_AT implication_NN1 that_CST ,_, novel-writing_NN1 in_II Wales_NP1 ..._... 
The_AT writer_NN1 probably_RR put_VV0 a_AT1 comma_NN1 to_TO indicate_VVI that_CST a_AT1 new_JJ sentence_NN1 was_VBDZ starting_VVG ._. 
But_CCB the_AT comma_NN1 confusingly_RR hides_VVZ the_AT close_JJ grammatical_JJ relation_NN1 between_II &quot;_" implication_NN1 that_DD1 &quot;_" and_CC the_AT sentence_NN1 which_DDQ follows_VVZ ._. 
Our_APPGE way_NN1 of_IO viewing_VVG these_DD2 difficulties_NN2 with_IW commas_NN2 suggests_VVZ a_AT1 significant_JJ point_NN1 about_II punctuation_NN1 in_RR21 general_RR22 :_: you_PPY use_VV0 commas_NN2 (_( and_CC other_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO punctuation_NN1 including_II dashes_NN2 and_CC brackets_NN2 round_II parentheses_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 this_DD1 one_PN1 )_) where_RRQ there_EX are_VBR identifiable_JJ breaks_NN2 between_II the_AT parts_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 sentence_NN1 ._. 
You_PPY use_VV0 semicolons_NN2 and_CC colons_NN2 to_TO indicate_VVI specific_JJ relationships_NN2 between_II sentences_NN2 that_CST you_PPY wish_VV0 to_TO connect_VVI together_RL into_II a_AT1 larger_JJR ,_, composite_JJ sentence_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB decisions_NN2 about_II exactly_RR when_RRQ to_TO use_VVI each_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO punctuation_NN1 vary_VV0 from_II writer_NN1 to_II writer_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ difficult_JJ to_TO establish_VVI precise_JJ rules_NN2 ._. 
As_CSA you_PPY punctuate_VV0 ,_, however_RR ,_, remember_VV0 that_CST departures_NN2 from_II convention_NN1 result_NN1 in_II writing_VVG which_DDQ appears_VVZ incorrect_JJ and_CC which_DDQ can_VM be_VBI difficult_JJ to_II understand._NNU 6.9_MC SUMMARY_NN1 ,_, SUGGESTIONS_NN2 AND_CC EXERCISES_VVZ Summary_NN1 The_AT main_JJ point_NN1 we_PPIS2 have_VH0 made_VVN in_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST in_II a_AT1 relatively_RR formal_JJ style_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 that_DD1 of_IO academic_JJ essay-writing_NN1 ,_, much_DA1 of_IO the_AT impact_NN1 and_CC credibility_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ you_PPY write_VV0 is_VBZ achieved_VVN by_II the_AT way_NN1 it_PPH1 conforms_VVZ to_II conventions_NN2 ._. 
Such_DA conventions_NN2 cover_VV0 many_DA2 aspects_NN2 of_IO writing_NN1 ,_, including_II grammar_NN1 ,_, spelling_VVG and_CC punctuation_NN1 ;_; and_CC for_IF this_DD1 reason_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ to_TO develop_VVI routines_NN2 to_TO ensure_VVI that_CST your_APPGE work_NN1 is_VBZ presented_VVN appropriately_RR in_II these_DD2 areas_NN2 ._. 
Working_VVG through_II a_AT1 series_NN of_IO commonly_RR occurring_VVG problems_NN2 ,_, we_PPIS2 have_VH0 identified_VVN relevant_JJ conventions_NN2 and_CC suggested_VVN strategies_NN2 for_IF avoiding_VVG mistakes_NN2 ._. 
Specific_JJ suggestions_NN2 *_FU Where_RRQ spelling_NN1 is_VBZ concerned_JJ ,_, try_VV0 to_TO understand_VVI your_APPGE mistakes_NN2 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II sounds_NN2 and_CC letters_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT construction_NN1 of_IO some_DD words_NN2 out_II21 of_II22 suffixes_NN2 and_CC prefixes_NN2 ._. 
Understanding_VVG sources_NN2 of_IO error_NN1 may_VM help_VVI you_PPY to_TO remember_VVI correct_JJ forms_NN2 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 11617_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Check_NN1 over_II your_APPGE drafts_NN2 ,_, and_CC separate_VV0 the_AT overall_JJ process_NN1 of_IO writing_VVG from_II the_AT more_RGR mechanical_JJ process_NN1 of_IO checking_VVG for_IF correct_JJ spellings_NN2 ,_, grammar_NN1 ,_, etc._RA (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 117_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Use_NN1 reference_NN1 books_NN2 ,_, to_TO help_VVI you_PPY understand_VVI your_APPGE mistakes_NN2 and_CC to_TO act_VVI as_II a_AT1 guide_NN1 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 118_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU If_CSW you_PPY are_VBR not_XX a_AT1 native_JJ speaker_NN1 of_IO English_NN1 ,_, learn_VV0 where_RRQ your_APPGE weak_JJ spots_NN2 are_VBR and_CC check_VV0 them_PPHO2 ;_; you_PPY may_VM well_RR have_VHI problems_NN2 with_IW choosing_VVG the_AT right_JJ preposition_NN1 ,_, inserting_VVG &quot;_" the_AT &quot;_" correctly_RR ,_, or_CC using_VVG &quot;_" have_VH0 &quot;_" with_IW the_AT correct_JJ meaning_NN1 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 11921_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Use_NN1 the_AT present_JJ tense_JJ for_IF describing_VVG the_AT content_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 text_NN1 or_CC narrating_VVG the_AT story_NN1 ._. 
Make_VV0 sure_JJ that_CST you_PPY use_VV0 tense_VV0 consistently_RR in_II a_AT1 passage_NN1 (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 121_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Use_NN1 a_AT1 pronoun_NN1 only_RR when_CS it_PPH1 is_VBZ completely_RR clear_VV0 what_DDQ it_PPH1 refers_VVZ to_II (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 122_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Pay_NN1 particular_JJ attention_NN1 to_II the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT subject_NN1 and_CC the_AT verb_NN1 in_II a_AT1 sentence_NN1 :_: check_VV0 agreement_NN1 ,_, watch_VV0 for_IF unrelated_JJ participles_NN2 ,_, and_CC remove_VV0 intervening_JJ commas_NN2 as_CSA necessary_JJ (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 1224_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Remember_VV0 that_CST a_AT1 semicolon_NN1 can_VM be_VBI used_VVN instead_II21 of_II22 a_AT1 full_JJ stop_NN1 ,_, but_CCB a_AT1 comma_NN1 normally_RR can_VM not_XX (_( see_VV0 p._NNU 125_MC )_) ._. 
*_FU Use_NN1 commas_NN2 to_TO help_VVI your_APPGE reader_NN1 understand_VV0 the_AT structure_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE sentences_NN2 (_( see_VV0 pp._NNU2 1258_MC )_) ._. 
Exercise_VV0 (_( 1_MC1 )_) The_AT following_JJ passage_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ the_AT closing_JJ section_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 essay_NN1 on_II the_AT central_JJ issues_NN2 raised_VVN by_II the_AT play_NN1 Hamlet_NP1 ,_, contains_VVZ a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO spelling_NN1 ,_, punctuation_NN1 and_CC grammatical_JJ errors_NN2 ._. 
Using_VVG suitable_JJ reference_NN1 sources_NN2 if_CS necessary_JJ ,_, correct_VV0 the_AT mistakes_NN2 in_II the_AT way_NN1 that_CST you_PPY might_VM do_VDI going_NN1 through_II a_AT1 piece_NN1 of_IO your_APPGE own_DA before_II submission_NN1 ._. 
At_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 ,_, amend_VV0 other_JJ aspects_NN2 of_IO presentation_NN1 (_( such_II21 as_II22 register_NN1 ,_, use_NN1 of_IO quotations_NN2 ,_, etc._RA )_) in_II ways_NN2 suggested_VVN in_II this_DD1 and_CC previous_JJ chapters_NN2 ._. 
Hamlet_NP1 is_VBZ up_RP against_II not_XX just_RR a_AT1 man_NN1 ,_, but_CCB a_AT1 king_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 will_VM have_VHI to_TO strike_VVI when_RRQ the_AT king_NN1 is_VBZ unarmed_JJ ,_, And_CC he_PPHS1 would_VM also_RR have_VHI to_TO be_VBI able_JK to_TO explain_VVI his_APPGE actions_NN2 ,_, and_CC yet_RR even_RR his_APPGE mother_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX believe_VVI him_PPHO1 ,_, but_CCB only_RR see_VV0 him_PPHO1 as_CSA mad_JJ &quot;_" Hamlet_NN1 thou_PPY has't_VV0 cleft_VVN my_APPGE heart_NN1 in_II twain_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" To_TO conclude_VVI ,_, the_AT play_NN1 does_VDZ give_VVI us_PPIO2 the_AT answers_NN2 to_II the_AT questions_NN2 we_PPIS2 demand_VV0 from_II Hamlet_NP1 ,_, we_PPIS2 understand_VV0 the_AT delay_NN1 's_VBZ he_PPHS1 makes_VVZ in_II killing_VVG Claudius_NP1 due_II21 to_II22 the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE thoughts_NN2 ,_, he_PPHS1 is_VBZ concerned_JJ with_IW the_AT future_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE soul_NN1 and_CC this_DD1 seems_VVZ to_II me_PPIO1 the_AT central_JJ issue_NN1 in_II Shakespeare_NP1 's_GE Hamlet_NP1 ._. 
